Quelltext der Seite George Washington

{{short description|1st president of the United States (1789–97)}}
{{About|the first president of the United States}}
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{{Infobox officeholder
| image               = Gilbert Stuart Williamstown Portrait of George Washington.jpg
| caption             = Portrait based on the unfinished ''[[Athenaeum Portrait]]'' by [[Gilbert Stuart]], 1796
| alt                 = Head and shoulders portrait of George Washington
| order               = 1st
| office              = President of the United States
| vicepresident       = John Adams
| term_start          = April 30, 1789{{efn|Congress counted the votes of the Electoral College and certified a president on April 6. Washington was sworn in on April 30.{{sfnm|Ferling|2009|1p=274|Taylor|2016|2pp=395, 494}}}}
| term_end            = March 4, 1797
| successor           = [[John Adams]]
| office1             = 7th [[Commanding General of the United States Army|Senior Officer of the United States Army]]
| president1          = John Adams
| term_start1         = July 13, 1798
| term_end1           = December 14, 1799
| predecessor1        = [[James Wilkinson]]
| successor1          = [[Alexander Hamilton]]
| office2             = [[Commander-in-chief|Commander in Chief]] of the {{nowrap|[[Continental Army]]}}
| appointer2          = [[Continental Congress]]
| term_start2         = June 19, 1775<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/ourdocs/commission.html#:~:text=The%20Continental%20Congress%20commissioned%20George,Army%20on%20June%2019%2C%201775 |title=Primary Documents in American History |work=Web Guides |publisher=Library of Congress |access-date=August 14, 2020}}</ref>
| term_end2           = December 23, 1783
| predecessor2        = ''Office established''
| successor2          = [[Henry Knox]] (as [[Senior Officer of the United States Army|Senior Officer]])
| office3             = 14th [[Chancellor of the College of William & Mary]]
| term_start3         = April 30, 1788
| term_end3           = December 14, 1799
| president3          = [[James Madison (bishop)|James Madison]]
| predecessor3        = [[Richard Terrick]] (1776)
| successor3          = [[John Tyler]] (1859)
| office4             = [[List of delegates to the Continental Congress|Delegate]] from [[Colony of Virginia|Virginia]] {{nowrap|to the [[Continental Congress]]}}
| term_start4         = September 5, 1774
| term_end4           = June 16, 1775
| predecessor4        = ''Office established''
| successor4          = [[Thomas Jefferson]]
| office5             = Member of the {{nowrap|[[House of Burgesses|Virginia House of Burgesses]]}}
| term_start5         = July 24, 1758<ref name="mount_vernon_house_of_burgesses_start">{{cite web|title=House of Burgesses|url=https://www.mountvernon.org/library/digitalhistory/digital-encyclopedia/article/House-of-Burgesses|publisher=Mount Vernon Ladies' Association|website=The Digital Encyclopedia of George Washington|access-date=May 9, 2020|quote=After a failed bid for a seat in December 1755, he won election in 1758 and represented Frederick County until 1765.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Enclosure V: Frederick County Poll Sheet, 1758, 24 July 1758 |url=https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/02-05-02-0273-0006 |publisher=National Historical Publications and Records Commission (The U.S. National Archives and Records Administration) |date=1758 |access-date=May 8, 2020}}</ref>
| term_end5           = June 24, 1775<ref name="mount_vernon_house_of_burgesses_end">{{cite web|title=House of Burgesses|url=https://www.mountvernon.org/library/digitalhistory/digital-encyclopedia/article/House-of-Burgesses|publisher=Mount Vernon Ladies' Association|website=The Digital Encyclopedia of George Washington|access-date=May 9, 2020 |quote=That year he ran in Fairfax County, winning a seat which he would retain until 1775&nbsp;... Dunmore did not call the House again until June of 1775. The House adjourned on June 24 and never again achieved a quorum (enough members to conduct business).}}</ref>
| predecessor5        = Hugh West<ref>{{cite news |last=Bish |first=Jim |date=Spring 2010 |title=Hugh West and the West Family's Momentous Role in Founding and Developing Alexandria and Fairfax and Loudoun Counties, Virginia |pages=13–14 |work=The Alexandria Chronicle |publisher=Alexandria Historical Society |url=https://alexandriahistorical.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/2010_Sp_Chronicle.pdf |access-date=May 10, 2020 |quote=In 1755 Hugh West Jr. gave up his seat in Fairfax County and won a House of Burgess election in Frederick County defeating Colonel George Washington. This defeat was Washington's only electoral loss. Hugh West Jr. served as a Frederick County burgess until 1758 when he was defeated by Washington.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/02-02-02-0229 |title=To George Washington from Adam Stephen, 23 December 1755 |publisher=National Historical Publications and Records Commission (The U.S. National Archives and Records Administration) |date=1755 |access-date=May 10, 2020 |quote=GW kept a copy of the Frederick County poll sheet (c.&nbsp;10 Dec., DLC:GW) in his papers with the names of the 40 men who voted for him and the names of the 271 men who voted for Hugh West and 270 who voted for Thomas Swearingen.}}</ref>
| successor5          = ''Office abolished''
| constituency5       = {{plainlist|
* [[Frederick County, Virginia|Frederick County]]<br />(1758–1765)
* [[Fairfax County, Virginia|Fairfax County]]<br />(1765–1775)<ref name="mount_vernon_house_of_burgesses_end" />
}}
| birth_date          = {{birth date|1732|2|22}}
| birth_place         = [[George Washington Birthplace National Monument|Popes Creek]], [[Colony of Virginia|Virginia]], {{nowrap|[[British America]]}}
| death_date          = {{death date and age|1799|12|14|1732|2|22}}
| death_place         = [[Mount Vernon]], [[Virginia]],  U.S.
| death_cause         = [[Epiglottitis]]
| resting_place       = Mount Vernon, Virginia, U.S.
| resting_place_coordinates = {{coord|38|42|28.4|N|77|05|09.9|W|region:US-VA_type:landmark|display=inline}}
| party               = [[Independent politician|Independent]]
| spouse              = {{marriage|[[Martha Washington|Martha Dandridge]]|January 6, 1759}}
| residence           = Mount Vernon, Virginia, U.S.
| parents             = {{plainlist|
* [[Augustine Washington]]
* [[Mary Ball Washington]]
}}
| children            = [[John Parke Custis]] (adopted)
| relatives           = [[Washington family]]
| awards              = {{plainlist|
* [[Congressional Gold Medal]]
* [[Thanks of Congress]]{{sfn|Randall|1997|p=303}}
}}
| occupation          = {{hlist|Military officer|farmer|politician}}
| signature           = George Washington signature.svg
| signature_alt       = Cursive signature in ink
| allegiance          = {{Flagicon image|Flag of Great Britain (1707–1800).svg}} [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]]<br />{{flag|United States|1777}}
| branch              = {{plainlist|
* [[Virginia militia|Virginia Militia]]
* [[Continental Army]]
* [[United States Army]]
}}
| serviceyears        = {{plainlist|
* 1752–1758 (Virginia Militia)
* 1775–1783 (Continental Army)
* 1798–1799 (U.S. Army)
}}
| rank                = {{plainlist|
* [[Colonel (United Kingdom)|Colonel]] (Virginia Militia)
* [[Major general (United States)|General]] and [[Commander-in-chief|Commander in Chief]] (Continental Army)
* [[Lieutenant general (United States)|Lieutenant General]] (U.S. Army)
* [[General of the Armies]] (promoted posthumously in 1976 by Congress)
}}
| commands            = {{plainlist|
* [[Provincial troops in the French and Indian Wars#Virginia|Virginia Regiment]]
* Continental Army
* United States Army
}}
| battles             = {{tree list}}
* [[French and Indian War]]
** [[Battle of Jumonville Glen]]
** [[Battle of Fort Necessity]]
** [[Braddock Expedition]]
** [[Battle of the Monongahela]]
** [[Forbes Expedition]]
* [[American Revolutionary War]]
** [[Boston campaign]]
** [[New York and New Jersey campaign]]
** [[Philadelphia campaign]]
** [[Yorktown campaign]]
* [[Northwest Indian War]]
* [[Whiskey Rebellion]]
| predecessor         = ''Office established''
}}

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'''George Washington''' (February 22, 1732{{efn|name="calendar"|Contemporaneous records used the [[Old Style and New Style dates|Old Style]] Julian calendar and the [[New Year#Historical European new year dates|Annunciation Style]] of enumerating years, recording his birth as February 11, 1731. The British [[Calendar (New Style) Act 1750]] implemented in 1752 altered the official British dating method to the Gregorian calendar with the start of the year on January{{nbsp}}1 (it had been March 25). These changes resulted in dates being moved forward 11 days and an advance of one year for those between January{{nbsp}}1 and March 25. For a further explanation, see [[Old Style and New Style dates]].{{sfn|Engber|2006}}}}{{spnd}}{{nowrap|December 14}}, 1799) was an American political leader, military general, statesman, and [[Founding Father of the United States]], who served as the first [[president of the United States]] from 1789 to 1797. Washington led the [[Patriot (American Revolution)|Patriot]] forces to victory in the [[American Revolutionary War]], and presided at the [[Constitutional Convention (United States)|Constitutional Convention]] of 1787, which established the [[Constitution of the United States]] and a federal government for the United States. Washington has been called the "[[Father of the Nation]]"<ref>{{Cite web|last=Coe|first=Alexis|date=June 20, 2020|title=The Father of the Nation, George Washington Was Also a Doting Dad to His Family|url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/george-washington-was-great-dad-too-180975139/|url-status=live|website=[[Smithsonian (magazine)]]}}</ref> for his manifold leadership in the formative days of the country.

Washington's first public office was serving as official [[Surveying|Surveyor]] of [[Culpeper County, Virginia]] from 1749 to 1750. Subsequently, he received his initial military training (as well as a command with the [[Virginia Regiment]]) during the [[French and Indian War]]. He was later elected to the Virginia [[House of Burgesses]] and was named a delegate to the [[Continental Congress]]. Here he was appointed [[Commanding General of the United States Army|Commanding General]] of the [[Continental Army]]. With this title, he commanded American forces (allied with [[Kingdom of France|France]]) in the defeat and surrender of the British at the [[Siege of Yorktown (1781)|Siege of Yorktown]] during the [[American Revolutionary War]]. He [[George Washington's resignation as commander-in-chief|resigned his commission]] after the [[Treaty of Paris (1783)|Treaty of Paris]] was signed in 1783.

Washington played an indispensable role in adopting and ratifying the Constitution of the United States. He was then twice elected president by the [[United States Electoral College|Electoral College]]. He implemented a strong, well-financed national government while remaining impartial in a fierce rivalry between cabinet members [[Thomas Jefferson]] and [[Alexander Hamilton]]. During the [[French Revolution]], he [[Proclamation of Neutrality|proclaimed a policy of neutrality]] while sanctioning the [[Jay Treaty]]. He set enduring precedents for the office of president, including the title "[[Mr. President (title)|Mr. President]]", and his [[George Washington's Farewell Address|Farewell Address]] is widely regarded as a pre-eminent statement on [[republicanism]].

[[George Washington and slavery|Washington owned several hundred slaves]], and he supported measures passed by Congress to protect [[Slavery in the United States|slavery]]. Starting in 1778, he became troubled with the institution of slavery and freed [[William Lee (valet)|William Lee]], one of his slaves, in his will. He freed the other 123 slaves that he owned upon the death of his wife, [[Martha Washington]], which was rare and unheard of at this time. She decided to respect her husband's wishes and freed these slaves on January 1, 1801, before her death.<ref>https://www.mountvernon.org/george-washington/slavery/washingtons-1799-will/ . Retrieved 8 August 2021</ref> He endeavored to assimilate [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] into the Anglo-American culture but combated indigenous resistance during instances of [[Northwest Indian War|violent conflict]]. He was a member of the [[Anglicanism|Anglican Church]] and the [[Freemasonry|Freemasons]], and he urged broad religious freedom in his roles as general and president. Upon his death, he was eulogized as "first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen".<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last=Hughes|first=Hillary|title=First in War, First in Peace, and First in the Hearts of His Countrymen|encyclopedia=The Digital Encyclopedia of George Washington|url=https://www.mountvernon.org/library/digitalhistory/digital-encyclopedia/article/first-in-war-first-in-peace-and-first-in-the-hearts-of-his-countrymen/|publisher=Mount Vernon Ladies' Association|location=Mount Vernon, Virginia|access-date=June 6, 2021}}</ref> He has been [[List of memorials to George Washington|memorialized]] by monuments, [[Cultural depictions of George Washington|various media]], geographical locations, including [[Washington, D.C.|the national capital]], the [[Washington (state)|State of Washington]], [[Presidents of the United States on U.S. postage stamps#George Washington|stamps]], and currency, and many scholars and polls rank him among [[Historical rankings of presidents of the United States|the greatest U.S. presidents]]. On March 13, 1978, Washington was militarily ranked [[General of the Armies of the United States|General of the Armies]], an honor that has only been awarded twice in the history of the United States.

== Early life (1732–1752) ==

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{{Further|Washington family|British America}}
[[File:Residence of the Washington Family on the Rappahannock.jpg|thumb|left|[[Ferry Farm]], the residence of the Washington Family on the Rappahannock River]]
The [[Washington family]] was a wealthy Virginia [[Planter class|planter]] family that had made its fortune through [[Speculation|land speculation]] and the [[cultivation of tobacco]].{{sfn|Unger|2019|pp=100–101}} Washington's great-grandfather [[John Washington]] immigrated in 1656 from [[Sulgrave]], [[Northamptonshire]], [[Kingdom of England|England]], to the English [[colony of Virginia]] where he accumulated {{convert|5000|acres}} of land, including [[Little Hunting Creek]] on the [[Potomac River]]. George Washington was born on February 22, 1732, at [[George Washington Birthplace National Monument|Popes Creek]] in [[Westmoreland County, Virginia]],{{sfn|Chernow|2010|pp=3–6}} and was the first of six children of [[Augustine Washington|Augustine]] and [[Mary Ball Washington]].{{sfnm|Ferling|2002|1p=3|Chernow|2010|2pp=5–7}} His father was a [[justice of the peace]] and a prominent public figure who had four additional children from his first marriage to Jane Butler.{{sfnm|Ferling|2009|1p=9|Chernow|2010|2pp=6–8}} The family moved to [[Little Hunting Creek]] in 1735.  Three years later in 1738, they moved to [[Ferry Farm]] near [[Fredericksburg, Virginia]] on the [[Rappahannock River]]. When Augustine died in 1743, Washington inherited Ferry Farm and ten slaves; his older half-brother [[Lawrence Washington (1718–1752)|Lawrence]] inherited Little Hunting Creek and renamed it [[Mount Vernon]].{{sfnm|Chernow|2010|1pp=6–10|Ferling|1988|2pp=4–5}}

Washington did not have the formal education his elder brothers received at [[Appleby Grammar School]] in England, but he did learn mathematics, trigonometry, and land [[surveying]]. He was a talented draftsman and map-maker. By early adulthood he was writing with "considerable force" and "precision";{{sfnm|Chernow|2010|1pp=10–12|Ferling|2002|2p=14|Ferling|2010|3pp=5–6}} however, his writing displayed little wit or humor. In pursuit of admiration, status, and power, he tended to attribute his shortcomings and failures to someone else's ineffectuality.{{sfn|Ferling|1988|pp=57–58}}

Washington often visited Mount Vernon and [[Belvoir (plantation)|Belvoir]], the plantation that belonged to Lawrence's father-in-law [[William Fairfax]]. Fairfax became Washington's patron and surrogate father, and Washington spent a month in 1748 with a team surveying Fairfax's [[Shenandoah Valley]] property.{{sfnm|Chernow|2010|1pp=10, 19|Ferling|2002|2pp=14–15|Randall|1997|3p=36}} He received a surveyor's license the following year from the [[College of William & Mary]].{{efn|Washington received his license through the college, whose charter gave it the authority to appoint Virginia county surveyors. There is no evidence that he actually attended classes there.{{sfn|"George Washington's Professional Surveys"|loc=2nd prgh}}}} Even though Washington had not served the customary apprenticeship, Fairfax appointed him surveyor of [[Culpeper County, Virginia]], and he appeared in Culpeper County to take his oath of office July 20, 1749.{{sfn|"George Washington's Professional Surveys"|loc=2nd prgh}} He subsequently familiarized himself with the frontier region, and though he resigned from the job in 1750, he continued to do surveys west of the [[Blue Ridge Mountains]].{{sfn|"George Washington's Professional Surveys"|loc=3rd prgh}} By 1752 he had bought almost {{convert|1500|acre|ha|-2}} in the Valley and owned {{convert|2315|acre|ha}}.{{sfnm|Fitzpatrick|1936|1loc=v. 19, p. 510|Chernow|2010|2pp=22–23}}

In 1751, Washington made his only trip abroad when he accompanied Lawrence to [[Barbados]], hoping the climate would cure his brother's tuberculosis.{{sfn|Chernow|2010|p=24}} Washington contracted [[smallpox]] during that trip, which immunized him but left his face slightly scarred.{{sfn|Flexner|1974|p=8}} Lawrence died in 1752, and Washington leased Mount Vernon from his widow; he inherited it outright after her death in 1761.{{sfn|Chernow|2010|pp=26, 98}}

== Colonial military career (1752–1758) ==
Lawrence Washington's service as adjutant general of the [[Virginia militia]] inspired his half-brother George to seek a commission. Virginia's lieutenant governor, [[Robert Dinwiddie]], appointed George Washington as a major and commander of one of the four militia districts. The British and French were competing for control of the [[Ohio River|Ohio Valley]]. While the British were constructing forts along the Ohio River, the French were doing the same—constructing forts between the Ohio River and Lake Erie.{{sfnm|Anderson|2007|1pp=31–32|Chernow|2010|2pp=26–27, 31}}

In October 1753, Dinwiddie appointed Washington as a special envoy. He had sent George to demand French forces to vacate land that was being claimed by the British.{{efn|Thirty years later, Washington reflected "that so young and inexperienced a person should have been employed".{{sfnm|Randall|1997|1p=74|Chernow|2010|2pp=26–27, 31}}}} Washington was also appointed to make peace with the [[Iroquois Confederacy]], and to gather further intelligence about the French forces.{{sfn|Ferling|2009|pp=15–16}} Washington met with Half-King [[Tanacharison]], and other Iroquois chiefs, at [[Logstown]], and gathered information about the numbers and locations of the French forts, as well as intelligence concerning individuals taken prisoner by the French. Washington was given the nickname [[Town Destroyer|Conotocaurius (town taker or devourer of villages)]] by Tanacharison. The nickname had previously been given to his great-grandfather [[John Washington]] in the late seventeenth century by the [[Susquehannock]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia| title=Conotocarious| encyclopedia=The Digital Encyclopedia of George Washington| url=https://www.mountvernon.org/library/digitalhistory/digital-encyclopedia/article/conotocarious/| publisher=Mount Vernon Ladies' Association| access-date=August 9, 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Congdon|first1=Charles Edwin|last2=Deardorff|first2=M.H.|title=Allegany oxbow: a history of Allegany State Park and the Allegany Reserve of the Seneca Nation|date=1967|url=https://books.google.com/?id=UI0IAQAAMAAJ&q=Conotocaurious&dq=Conotocaurious}}</ref>

Washington's party reached the Ohio River in November 1753, and were intercepted by a French patrol. The party was escorted to [[Fort Le Boeuf]], where Washington was received in a friendly manner. He delivered the British demand to vacate to the French commander [[Jacques Legardeur de Saint-Pierre|Saint-Pierre]], but the French refused to leave. Saint-Pierre gave Washington his official answer in a sealed envelope after a few days' delay, as well as  food and extra winter clothing for his party's journey back to Virginia.{{sfnm|Ferling|2009|1pp=15–18|Lengel|2005|2pp=23–24|Randall|1997|3p=74|Chernow|2010|4pp=26–27, 31}} Washington completed the precarious mission in 77 days, in difficult winter conditions, achieving a measure of distinction when his report was published in Virginia and in London.{{sfnm|Fitzpatrick|1936|1loc=19, pp. 510–511|Ferling|2009|2pp=15–18}}

=== French and Indian War ===
{{Main|French and Indian War|George Washington in the French and Indian War|Seven Years' War}}

In February 1754, Dinwiddie promoted Washington to lieutenant colonel and second-in-command of the 300-strong Virginia Regiment, with orders to confront French forces at the [[Point State Park|Forks of the Ohio]].{{sfnm|Chernow|2010|1pp=31–32|Ferling|2009|2pp=18–19}} Washington set out for the Forks with half the regiment in April but soon learned a French force of 1,000 had begun construction of [[Fort Duquesne]] there. In May, having set up a [[Fort Necessity National Battlefield|defensive position]] at Great Meadows, he learned that the French had made camp seven miles (11&nbsp;km) away; he decided to take the offensive.{{sfn|Chernow|2010|pp=41–42}}
[[File:The Night Council At Fort Necessity from the Darlington Collection of Engraving- detail.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|left|alt=Night scene depicting Washington at center, standing among officers and Indians, around a lamp, holding a war council|Lieutenant Colonel Washington holds night council at [[Battle of Fort Necessity|Fort Necessity]]]]

The French detachment proved to be only about fifty men, so Washington advanced on May 28 with a small force of Virginians and Indian allies to ambush them.{{sfn|Chernow|2010|p=42}}{{efn|The mid-16th-century word '''Indian''' described the Indigenous Peoples of the Americas. More modern terms for Indians include American Indian and Native American and Indigenous Peoples.{{sfn|Cresswell|2010|page=222}}}} What took place, known as the [[Battle of Jumonville Glen]] or the "Jumonville affair", was disputed, but French forces were killed outright with muskets and hatchets. French commander [[Joseph Coulon de Jumonville]], who carried a diplomatic message for the British to evacuate, was killed. French forces found Jumonville and some of his men dead and scalped and assumed Washington was responsible.{{sfn|Chernow|2010|pp=42–43}} Washington blamed his translator for not communicating the French intentions.{{sfn|Ferling|2009|pp=24–25}} Dinwiddie congratulated Washington for his victory over the French.{{sfn|Chernow|2010|pp=44–45}} This incident ignited the [[French and Indian War]], which later became part of the larger [[Seven Years' War]].{{sfnm|Ferling|2009|1pp=19–24|Ellis|2004|2p=13|Alden|1996|3pp=13–15}}

The full Virginia Regiment joined Washington at Fort Necessity the following month with news that he had been promoted to command of the regiment and colonel upon the regimental commander's death. The regiment was reinforced by an [[British Army Independent Companies in South Carolina|independent company of a hundred South Carolinians]] led by Captain [[James Mackay (British Army officer)|James Mackay]], whose royal commission outranked that of Washington, and a conflict of command ensued. On July 3, a French force attacked with 900 men, and the [[Battle of Fort Necessity|ensuing battle]] ended in Washington's surrender.{{sfnm|Ferling|2009|1pp=23–25|Ellis|2004|2pp=15–17}} In the aftermath, Colonel [[James Innes (North Carolina)|James Innes]] took command of intercolonial forces, the Virginia Regiment was divided, and Washington was offered a captaincy which he refused, with the resignation of his commission.{{sfn|Ferling|2009|p=26}}

[[File:Washington the soldier.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Washington on horseback in the middle of a battle scene with other soldiers|''Washington the Soldier'': Lieutenant Colonel Washington on horseback during the [[Battle of the Monongahela]] (oil, ''Reǵnier'', 1834)]]
In 1755, Washington served voluntarily as an aide to General [[Edward Braddock]], who led a British [[Braddock Expedition|expedition]] to expel the French from Fort Duquesne and the Ohio Country.{{sfn|Chernow|2010|p=53}} On Washington's recommendation, Braddock split the army into one main column and a lightly equipped "flying column".{{sfnm|Alden|1996|1p=37|Ferling|2010|2pp=35–36}} Suffering from a severe case of [[dysentery]], Washington was left behind, and when he rejoined Braddock at Monongahela the French and their Indian allies [[Battle of the Monongahela|ambushed]] the divided army. Two-thirds of the British force became casualties, including the mortally wounded Braddock. Under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Thomas Gage, Washington, still very ill, rallied the survivors and formed a rear guard, allowing the remnants of the force to disengage and retreat.{{sfnm|Alden|1996|1pp=37–46|Ferling|2010|2pp=35–36|Chernow|2010|3pp=57–58}} During the engagement, he had two horses shot from under him, and his hat and coat were bullet-pierced.{{sfn|Fitzpatrick|1936|p=511}} His conduct under fire redeemed his reputation among critics of his command in the Battle of Fort Necessity,{{sfn|Ferling|2009|pp=28–30}} but he was not included by the succeeding commander (Colonel Thomas Dunbar) in planning subsequent operations.{{sfn|Alden|1996|pp=37–46}}

The Virginia Regiment was reconstituted in August 1755, and Dinwiddie appointed Washington its commander, again with the rank of colonel. Washington clashed over seniority almost immediately, this time with [[John Dagworthy]], another captain of superior royal rank, who commanded a detachment of Marylanders at the regiment's headquarters in [[Fort Cumberland (Maryland)|Fort Cumberland]].{{sfnm|Ellis|2004|1p=24|Ferling|2009|2pp=30–31}} Washington, impatient for an offensive against Fort Duquesne, was convinced Braddock would have granted him a royal commission and pressed his case in February 1756 with Braddock's successor, [[William Shirley]], and again in January 1757 with Shirley's successor, [[John Campbell, 4th Earl of Loudoun|Lord Loudoun]]. Shirley ruled in Washington's favor only in the matter of Dagworthy; Loudoun humiliated Washington, refused him a royal commission and agreed only to relieve him of the responsibility of manning Fort Cumberland.{{sfn|Ferling|2009|pp=31–32, 38–39}}

In 1758, the Virginia Regiment was assigned to the British [[Forbes Expedition]] to capture Fort Duquesne.{{sfnm|Flexner|1965|1p=194|Fitzpatrick|1936|2p=512}}{{efn|A second Virginia regiment was raised under Colonel William Byrd III and also allocated to the expedition.{{sfn|Flexner|1965|pp=206–207}}}} Washington disagreed with General [[John Forbes (British Army officer)|John Forbes']] tactics and chosen route.{{sfnm|Fitzpatrick|1936|1p=512|Chernow|2010|2pp=89–90|Flexner|1965|3pp=194, 206–207}} Forbes nevertheless made Washington a [[Brevet (military)|brevet]] brigadier general and gave him command of one of the three brigades that would assault the fort. The French abandoned the fort and the valley before the assault was launched; Washington saw only a friendly fire incident which left 14 dead and 26 injured. The war lasted another four years, but Washington resigned his commission and returned to Mount Vernon.{{sfnm|Ferling|2009|1p=43|Chernow|2010|2pp=90–91|Lengel|2005|3pp=75–76, 81}}

Under Washington, the Virginia Regiment had defended {{convert|300|mi|km}} of frontier against twenty Indian attacks in ten months.{{sfnm|Fitzpatrick|1936|1pp=511–512|Flexner|1965|2p=138|Fischer|2004|3pp=15–16|Ellis|2004|4p=38}} He increased the professionalism of the regiment as it increased from 300 to 1,000 men, and Virginia's frontier population suffered less than other colonies. Some historians have said this was Washington's "only unqualified success" during the war.{{sfnm|Fischer|2004|1pp=15–16|Ellis|2004|2p=38}} Though he failed to realize a royal commission, he did gain self-confidence, leadership skills, and invaluable knowledge of British military tactics. The destructive competition Washington witnessed among colonial politicians fostered his later support of a strong central government.{{sfnm|Chernow|2010|1pp=92–93|Ferling|2002|2pp=32–33}}

== Marriage, civilian, and political life (1755–1775) ==
<!-- linked from redirect "George Washington between the wars" -->
[[File:Washington 1772.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Colonel George Washington, by [[Charles Willson Peale]], 1772|alt=Painting of Washington, by Charles Wilson Peale, standing in a formal pose, in a colonel's uniform, right hand inserted in shirt.]]

On January 6, 1759, Washington, at age 26, married [[Martha Washington|Martha Dandridge Custis]], the 27-year-old widow of wealthy plantation owner [[Daniel Parke Custis]]. The marriage took place at Martha's estate; she was intelligent, gracious, and experienced in managing a planter's estate, and the couple created a happy marriage.{{sfnm|Ferling|2002|1pp=33–34|Wiencek|2003|2p=69}} They raised [[John Parke Custis]] (Jacky) and Martha Parke (Patsy) Custis, children from her previous marriage, and later Jacky's children [[Eleanor Parke Custis Lewis|Eleanor Parke Custis]] (Nelly) and [[George Washington Parke Custis]] (Washy). Washington's 1751 bout with smallpox is thought to have rendered him sterile, though it is equally likely that "Martha may have sustained injury during the birth of Patsy, her final child, making additional births impossible."{{sfn|Chernow|2010|p=103}} The couple lamented not having any children together.{{sfnm|Chernow|2010|1#'p=103|Flexner|1974|2pp=42–43}} They moved to Mount Vernon, near [[Alexandria, Virginia|Alexandria]], where he took up life as a planter of tobacco and wheat and emerged as a political figure.{{sfnm|Chernow|2010|1pp=97–98|Fischer|2004|2p=14}}

The marriage gave Washington control over Martha's one-third [[dower]] interest in the {{convert|18000|acre|ha|-2|adj=on}} [[Daniel Parke Custis#Estate|Custis estate]], and he managed the remaining two-thirds for Martha's children; the estate also included 84 slaves. He became one of Virginia's wealthiest men, which increased his social standing.{{sfn|Wiencek|2003|pp=9–10, 67–69, 80–81}}

At Washington's urging, Governor [[Norborne Berkeley, 4th Baron Botetourt|Lord Botetourt]] fulfilled Dinwiddie's 1754 promise of land bounties to all-volunteer militia during the French and Indian War.{{sfnm|1a1=Rasmussen|1a2=Tilton|1y=1999|1p=100|2a1=Chernow|2y=2010|2p=184}} In late 1770, Washington inspected the lands in the [[Ohio River|Ohio]] and [[Kanawha River|Great Kanawha]] regions, and he engaged surveyor [[William Crawford (soldier)|William Crawford]] to subdivide it. Crawford allotted {{convert|23200|acre|ha}} to Washington; Washington told the veterans that their land was hilly and unsuitable for farming, and he agreed to purchase {{convert|20147|acre|ha}}, leaving some feeling they had been duped.{{sfnm|Ferling|2002|1pp=44–45|Grizzard|2002|2pp=135–37}} He also doubled the size of Mount Vernon to {{convert|6500|acre|ha|-2}} and increased its slave population to more than a hundred by 1775.{{sfn|Ellis|2004|pp=41–42, 48}}

Washington's political activities included supporting the candidacy of his friend [[George William Fairfax]] in his 1755 bid to represent the region in the [[Virginia House of Burgesses]].  This support led to a dispute which resulted in a physical altercation between Washington and another Virginia planter, [[William Payne (sheriff)|William Payne]]. Washington defused the situation, including ordering officers from the [[Virginia Regiment]] to stand down. Washington apologized to Payne the following day at a tavern. Payne had been expecting to be challenged to a duel.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Weems|first=Mason|title=The Life of Washington|publisher=Belknap Press of Harvard University Press|year=1962|editor-last=Cunliffe|editor-first=Marcus|pages=187–190}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Payne|first=Brooke|title=The Paynes of Virginia|publisher=The William Byrd Press|year=1937}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Betts|first=William|title=The Nine Lives of Washington|publisher=iUniverse|year=2013}}</ref>

As a respected military hero and large landowner, Washington held local offices and was elected to the Virginia provincial legislature, representing Frederick County in the House of Burgesses for seven years beginning in 1758.{{sfn|Ellis|2004|pp=41–42, 48}} He plied the voters with beer, brandy, and other beverages, although he was absent while serving on the Forbes Expedition.{{sfn|Alden|1996|p=71}} He won the election with roughly 40 percent of the vote, defeating three other candidates with the help of several local supporters. He rarely spoke in his early legislative career, but he became a prominent critic of Britain's taxation policy and mercantilist policies towards the American colonies starting in the 1760s.{{sfn|Ferling|2009|pp=49–54, 68}}
[[File:Martha Dandridge Custis crop.jpg|thumb|upright|Martha Washington based on a 1757 portrait by [[John Wollaston (painter)|John Wollaston]]|alt=A mezzotint of Martha Washington, standing, wearing a formal gown, based on a 1757 portrait by John Wollaston]]

By occupation, Washington was a planter, and he imported luxuries and other goods from England, paying for them by exporting tobacco.{{sfn|Brown|1976|p=476}} His profligate spending combined with low tobacco prices left him £1,800 in debt by 1764, prompting him to diversify his holdings.{{sfn|Ellis|2004|pp=49–50}} In 1765, because of erosion and other soil problems, he changed Mount Vernon's primary cash crop from tobacco to wheat and expanded operations to include corn [[George Washington's Gristmill|flour milling]] and fishing.{{sfn|Chernow|2010|p=141}} Washington also took time for leisure with fox hunting, fishing, dances, theater, cards, backgammon, and billiards.{{sfnm|Ferling|2002|1pp=43–44|Ellis|2004|2p=44}}

Washington soon was counted among the political and social elite in Virginia. From 1768 to 1775, he invited some 2,000 guests to his Mount Vernon estate, mostly those whom he considered "people of rank". He became more politically active in 1769, presenting legislation in the [[Virginia General Assembly|Virginia Assembly]] to establish an embargo on goods from Great Britain.{{sfn|Ferling|2002|pp=73–76}}

Washington's step-daughter Patsy Custis suffered from epileptic attacks from age 12, and she died in his arms in 1773. The following day, he wrote to [[Burwell Bassett]]: "It is easier to conceive, than to describe, the distress of this Family".{{sfn|Chernow|2010|p=161}} He canceled all business activity and remained with Martha every night for three months.{{sfn|Higginbotham|2001|p=154}}

=== Opposition to British Parliament and Crown ===
{{further|American Revolution|American Revolutionary War|George Washington in the American Revolution}}

Washington played a central role before and during the [[American Revolution]]. His disdain for the British military had begun when he was passed over for promotion into the Regular Army. Opposed to taxes imposed by the [[Parliament of Great Britain|British Parliament]] on the Colonies without [[Virtual representation|proper representation]],{{sfn|Chernow|2010|p=136}} he and other colonists were also angered by the [[Royal Proclamation of 1763]] which banned American settlement west of the [[Allegheny Mountains]] and protected the [[North American fur trade|British fur trade]].{{sfnm|Chernow|2010|1pp=137, 148|Taylor|2016|2pp=61,75}}

Washington believed the [[Stamp Act 1765|Stamp Act of 1765]] was an "Act of Oppression", and he celebrated its repeal the following year.{{efn|In a letter of September 20, 1765, Washington protested to "Robert Cary & Co." the low prices he received for his tobacco and for the inflated prices he was forced to pay on second-rate goods from London.{{sfnm|Chernow|2010|1p=138|Ferling|2009|2p=68}}}} In March 1766, Parliament passed the [[Declaratory Act]] asserting that Parliamentary law superseded colonial law.{{sfn|Taylor|2016|p=103}} In the late 1760s, the interference of the British Crown in American lucrative western land speculation, spurred on the American Revolution.<ref name="Lehrman Institute (June 22, 2021)" /> Washington himself was a prosperous land speculator, and in 1767, he encouraged "adventures" to acquire backcountry western lands.<ref name="Lehrman Institute (June 22, 2021)">{{cite web|title=The Pursuit of Land|url=https://lehrmaninstitute.org/history/founders-land.html|publisher=The Lehrman Institute|date=June 22, 2021|access-date=July 11, 2021}}</ref> Washington helped lead widespread protests against the [[Townshend Acts]] passed by Parliament in 1767, and he introduced a proposal in May 1769 drafted by [[George Mason]] which called Virginians to boycott British goods; the Acts were mostly repealed in 1770.{{sfnm|Freeman|1968|1pp=174–76|Taylor|2016|2p=75}}

Parliament sought to punish Massachusetts colonists for their role in the [[Boston Tea Party]] in 1774 by passing the [[Intolerable Acts|Coercive Acts]], which Washington referred to as "an invasion of our rights and privileges".{{sfnm|Randall|1997|1p=262|Chernow|2010|2p=166|Taylor|2016|3p=119}} He said Americans must not submit to acts of tyranny since "custom and use shall make us as tame and abject slaves, as the blacks we rule over with such arbitrary sway".{{sfn|Alden|1996|p=101}} That July, he and George Mason drafted a list of resolutions for the [[Fairfax County, Virginia|Fairfax County]] committee which Washington chaired, and the committee adopted the [[Fairfax Resolves]] calling for a Continental Congress.{{sfn|Chernow|2010|p=167}} On August 1, Washington attended the [[Virginia Conventions|First Virginia Convention]], where he was selected as a delegate to the [[First Continental Congress]], September 5 to October 26, 1774, which he also attended.{{sfnm|1a1=Ferling|1y=2010|1p=100|2a1=Ford|2a2=Hunt|2a3=Fitzpatrick|2y=1904|2loc=v. 19, p. 11}} As tensions rose in 1774, he helped train county militias in Virginia and organized enforcement of the [[Continental Association]] boycott of British goods instituted by the Congress.{{sfnm|Ferling|2010|1p=108|Taylor|2016|2pp=126–127}}

The [[American Revolutionary War]] began on April 19, 1775, with the [[Battles of Lexington and Concord]] and the [[Siege of Boston]].{{sfn|Taylor|2016|p=132}} The colonists were divided over breaking away from British rule and split into two factions: [[Patriot (American Revolution)|Patriots]] who rejected British rule, and [[Loyalist (American Revolution)|Loyalists]] who desired to remain subject to the King.{{sfn|Taylor|2016|pp=3–9}} General [[Thomas Gage]] was commander of British forces in America at the beginning of the war.{{sfn|Taylor|2016|pp=121–123}} Upon hearing the shocking news of the onset of war, Washington was "sobered and dismayed",{{sfn|Chernow|2010|p=181}} and he hastily departed Mount Vernon on May 4, 1775, to join the [[Second Continental Congress]] in [[Philadelphia]].{{sfn|Chernow|2010|p=182}}

== Commander in chief (1775–1783) ==
{{See also|American Revolutionary War#American strategy}}{{further|Military career of George Washington}}
[[File:George Washington, 1776.jpg|thumb|upright|General Washington, Commander of the [[Continental Army]] by [[Charles Willson Peale]] (1776)|alt=Formal painting of General George Washington, standing in uniform, as commander of the Continental Army]]

[[Second Continental Congress|Congress]] created the [[Continental Army]] on June 14, 1775, and [[Samuel Adams|Samuel]] and [[John Adams]] nominated Washington to become its [[commander-in-chief]]. Washington was chosen over [[John Hancock]] because of his military experience and the belief that a Virginian would better unite the colonies. He was considered an incisive leader who kept his "ambition in check".{{sfn|Chernow|2010|pp=185, 547}} He was unanimously elected commander in chief by Congress the next day.{{sfnm|Taylor|2016|1pp=132–133|Ellis|2004|2pp=67–68|Chernow|2010|3pp=185–186|Fitzpatrick|1936|4p=514}}

Washington appeared before Congress in uniform and gave an acceptance speech on June 16, declining a salary—though he was later reimbursed expenses. He was commissioned on June 19 and was roundly praised by Congressional delegates, including John Adams, who proclaimed that he was the man best suited to lead and unite the colonies.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/03-01-02-0004 |title=Commission from the Continental Congress, 19 June 1775 |publisher=National Historical Publications and Records Commission (The U.S. National Archives and Records Administration) |year=1775 |access-date=May 26, 2020}}</ref>{{sfnm|1a1=Rasmussen|1a2=Tilton|1y=1999|1p=294|2a1=Fitzpatrick|2y=1936|2p=514|Taylor|2016|3pp=141–142|Ferling|2009|4pp=86–87}} Congress appointed Washington "General & Commander in chief of the army of the [[United Colonies]] and of all the forces raised or to be raised by them", and instructed him to take charge of the siege of Boston on June 22, 1775.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/03-01-02-0010 |title=Instructions from the Continental Congress, 22 June 1775 |publisher=National Historical Publications and Records Commission (The U.S. National Archives and Records Administration) |year=1775 |access-date=May 26, 2020}}</ref>

Congress chose his primary staff officers, including Major General [[Artemas Ward]], Adjutant General [[Horatio Gates]], Major General [[Charles Lee (general)|Charles Lee]], Major General [[Philip Schuyler]], Major General [[Nathanael Greene]], Colonel [[Henry Knox]], and Colonel [[Alexander Hamilton]].{{sfnm|Chernow|2010|1pp=190–191|Ferling|2002|2p=108}} Washington was impressed by Colonel [[Benedict Arnold]] and gave him responsibility for launching an invasion of Canada. He also engaged French and Indian War compatriot Brigadier General [[Daniel Morgan]]. Henry Knox impressed Adams with ordnance knowledge, and Washington promoted him to colonel and chief of artillery.{{sfnm|Ferling|2002|1pp=109–110|Puls|2008|2p=31}}

Washington initially opposed the enlistment of slaves into the Continental Army. Nevertheless, he later relented when the British issued proclamations such as [[Dunmore's Proclamation]], which promised freedom to slaves of Patriot masters if they joined the British.{{sfn|Morgan|2000|pp=290–291}} On January 16, 1776, Congress allowed free blacks to serve in the militia. By the end of the war, one-tenth of Washington's army were blacks.{{sfn|Taylor|2016|p=231}}

=== Siege of Boston ===
{{Main|Siege of Boston}}
[[File:Washingtoncommandarmy.jpg|thumb|left|Washington taking command of the Continental Army, just before the siege]]

Early in 1775, in response to the growing rebellious movement, London sent British troops, commanded by [[Thomas Gage|General Thomas Gage]], to occupy Boston. They set up fortifications about the city, making it impervious to attack. Various local militias surrounded the city and effectively trapped the British, resulting in a standoff.{{sfn|Taylor|2016|pp=121–122, 143}}

As Washington headed for Boston, word of his march preceded him, and he was greeted everywhere; gradually, he became a symbol of the Patriot cause.{{sfn|Chernow|2010|p=193}}{{efn|Historian [[Garry Wills]] noted, "before there was a nation—before there was any symbol of that nation (a flag, a Constitution, a national seal)—there was Washington."{{sfn|Chernow|2010|p=193}}}} Upon arrival on July 2, 1775, two weeks after the Patriot defeat at nearby [[Battle of Bunker Hill|Bunker Hill]], he set up his [[Cambridge, Massachusetts]] headquarters and inspected the new army there, only to find an undisciplined and badly outfitted militia.{{sfn|Taylor|2016|p=143}} After consultation, he initiated [[Benjamin Franklin]]'s suggested reforms—drilling the soldiers and imposing strict discipline, floggings, and incarceration.{{sfnm|Isaacson|2003|p=303|Ferling|2002|1p=112|Taylor|2016|2p=143|Fitzpatrick|1936|3p=514}} Washington ordered his officers to identify the skills of recruits to ensure military effectiveness, while removing incompetent officers.{{sfn|Ferling|2002|pp=112–113, 116}} He petitioned Gage, his former superior, to release captured Patriot officers from prison and treat them humanely.{{sfn|Chernow|2010|pp=57, 160, 166, 201}} In October 1775, King George III declared that the colonies were in open rebellion and relieved General Gage of command for incompetence, replacing him with General [[William Howe, 5th Viscount Howe|William Howe]].{{sfnm|Chernow|2010|1p=208|Taylor|2016|2pp=133–135}}

In June 1775, Congress ordered an [[Battle of Quebec (1775)|invasion of Canada]]. It was led by Benedict Arnold, who, despite Washington's strong objection, drew volunteers from the latter's force during the Siege of Boston. The move on Quebec failed, with the American forces being reduced to less than half and forced to retreat.{{sfnm|Ferling|2009|1pp=94–95|Taylor|2016|2pp=151–153}}

The Continental Army, further diminished by expiring short-term enlistments, and by January 1776 reduced by half to 9,600 men, had to be supplemented with the militia, and was joined by [[Noble train of artillery|Knox with heavy artillery]] captured from [[Capture of Fort Ticonderoga|Fort Ticonderoga]].{{sfnm|Lengel|2005|1pp=124–126|Ferling|2002|2pp=116–119}} When the [[Charles River]] froze over, Washington was eager to cross and storm Boston, but General Gates and others were opposed to untrained militia striking well-garrisoned fortifications. Washington reluctantly agreed to [[Fortification of Dorchester Heights|secure the Dorchester Heights]], 100 feet above Boston, in an attempt to force the British out of the city.{{sfn|Ferling|2009|p=100}} On March 9, under cover of darkness, Washington's troops brought up Knox's big guns and bombarded British ships in Boston harbor. On [[Evacuation Day (Massachusetts)|March 17]], 9,000 British troops and Loyalists began a chaotic ten-day evacuation of Boston aboard 120 ships. Soon after, Washington entered the city with 500 men, with explicit orders not to plunder the city. He ordered vaccinations against smallpox to great effect, as he did later in Morristown, New Jersey.{{sfn|Henderson|2009|p=47}} He refrained from exerting military authority in Boston, leaving civilian matters in the hands of local authorities.{{sfnm|Chernow|2010|1pp=227–228|Lengel|2005|2pp=124–126|Ferling|2002|3pp=116–119|Taylor|2016|4pp=144, 153–154}}{{efn|Congress initially directed the war effort in June 1776 with the committee known as "Board of War and Ordnance"; this was succeeded by the [[Board of War]] in July 1777, which eventually included members of the military.{{sfn|Freedman|2008|p=42}}}}

=== Battle of Long Island ===
{{Main|Battle of Long Island}}
[[File:Battleoflongisland.jpg|thumb|right|''Battle of Long Island''<br />[[Alonzo Chappel]] (1858)|alt=Painting by Alonzo Chappel, 1858, showing the frantic battle scene of the Battle of Long Island, with smoke in the background]]

Washington then proceeded to [[New York City]], arriving on April 13, 1776, and began constructing fortifications to thwart the expected British attack. He ordered his occupying forces to treat civilians and their property with respect, to avoid the abuses which Bostonian citizens suffered at the hands of British troops during their occupation.{{sfn|Chernow|2010|pp=229–230}} A plot to assassinate or capture him was discovered but thwarted, resulting in the arrest of 98 people involved or complicit (56 of which were from Long Island ([[Brooklyn|Kings (Brooklyn)]] and [[Queens]] counties), including the Loyalist Mayor of New York [[David Mathews]].<ref>Brooklyn Citizen, October 10, 1897, page 13</ref> Washington's bodyguard, [[Thomas Hickey (soldier)|Thomas Hickey]], was hanged for mutiny and sedition.{{sfn|Chernow|2010|pp=232–233}} General Howe transported his resupplied army, with the British fleet, from [[Halifax, Nova Scotia|Halifax]] to New York, knowing the city was key to securing the continent. [[George Germain, 1st Viscount Sackville|George Germain]], who ran the British war effort in England, believed it could be won with one "decisive blow".{{sfn|Chernow|2010|p=235}} The British forces, including more than a hundred ships and thousands of troops, began arriving on [[Staten Island]] on July{{nbsp}}2 to lay siege to the city.{{sfnm|Fitzpatrick|1936|pp=514–515|Taylor|2016|2pp=162–163}} After the [[United States Declaration of Independence|Declaration of Independence]] was adopted on July 4, Washington informed his troops in his general orders of July{{nbsp}}9 that Congress had declared the united colonies to be "free and independent states".{{sfn|Chernow|2010|p=237}}

Howe's troop strength totaled 32,000 regulars and [[Hessian (soldier)|Hessians auxiliaries]], and Washington's consisted of 23,000, mostly raw recruits and militia.{{sfnm|Chernow|2010|1pp=244–245|Taylor|2016|2pp=162–163}} In August, Howe landed 20,000 troops at [[Gravesend, Brooklyn]], and approached Washington's fortifications, as George III proclaimed the rebellious American colonists to be traitors.{{sfn|Taylor|2016|p=144}} Washington, opposing his generals, chose to fight, based upon inaccurate information that Howe's army had only 8,000-plus troops.{{sfnm|Ellis|2004|1pp=95–96|Chernow|2010|2p=244}} In the [[Battle of Long Island]], Howe [[New York and New Jersey campaign|assaulted Washington's flank]] and inflicted 1,500 Patriot casualties, the British suffering 400.{{sfn|Taylor|2016|p=164}} Washington retreated, instructing General [[William Heath]] to acquisition river craft in the area. On August 30, General [[William Alexander, Lord Stirling|William Alexander]] held off the British and gave cover while the army crossed the [[East River]] under darkness to [[Manhattan]] Island without loss of life or materiel, although Alexander was captured.{{sfn|McCullough|2005|pp=186–95}}

Howe, emboldened by his Long Island victory, dispatched Washington as "George Washington, Esq." in futility to negotiate peace. Washington declined, demanding to be addressed with diplomatic protocol, as general and fellow belligerent, not as a "rebel", lest his men are hanged as such if captured.{{sfnm|Chernow|2010|1p=240|Davis|1975|2pp=93–94|Taylor|2016|3p=164}} The [[Royal Navy]] bombarded the unstable earthworks on lower Manhattan Island.{{sfn|Taylor|2016|p=165}} Washington, with misgivings, heeded the advice of Generals Greene and [[Israel Putnam|Putnam]] to defend [[Fort Washington (Manhattan)|Fort Washington]]. They were unable to hold it, and Washington abandoned it despite General [[Charles Lee (general)|Lee]]'s objections, as his army retired north to the [[Battle of White Plains|White Plains]].{{sfnm|Davis|1975|1p=136|Chernow|2010|2p=257}} Howe's pursuit forced Washington to retreat across the [[Hudson River]] to [[Fort Lee Historic Park|Fort Lee]] to avoid encirclement. Howe landed his troops on Manhattan in November and [[Battle of Fort Washington|captured Fort Washington]], inflicting high casualties on the Americans. Washington was responsible for delaying the retreat, though he blamed Congress and General Greene. Loyalists in New York considered Howe a liberator and spread a rumor that Washington had set fire to the city.{{sfnm|Alden|1996|1p=137|Taylor|2016|2p=165}} Patriot morale reached its lowest when Lee was captured.{{sfnm|Taylor|2016|1pp=166–167|Farner|1996|2p=24|"Battle of Trenton"|1976|3p=9}} Now reduced to 5,400 troops, Washington's army retreated through [[Province of New Jersey|New Jersey]], and Howe broke off pursuit, delaying his advance on Philadelphia, and set up winter quarters in New York.{{sfnm|Fischer|2004|1pp=224–226|Taylor|2016|pp=166–169}}

=== Crossing the Delaware, Trenton, and Princeton ===

{{Main|George Washington's crossing of the Delaware River|Battle of Trenton|Battle of the Assunpink Creek|Battle of Princeton}}
[[File:Washington Crossing the Delaware by Emanuel Leutze, MMA-NYC, 1851.jpg|thumb|''[[Washington Crossing the Delaware (1851 painting)|Washington Crossing the Delaware]]'', [[Emanuel Leutze]] (1851){{efn|This painting has received both acclaim and criticism;{{sfnm|Howat|1968|1pp=290, 293, 297|Nowlan|2014|2p=66}} see [[Emanuel Leutze]] article for details.}}|alt=Famous 1851 painting by Emanuel Leutze, depicting Washington, standing in a boat with his troops, crossing the icy Delaware River, with soldiers pushing away chunks of ice]]

Washington crossed the [[Delaware River]] into Pennsylvania, where Lee's replacement [[John Sullivan (general)|John Sullivan]] joined him with 2,000 more troops.{{sfn|Taylor|2016|pp=166–167, 169}} The future of the Continental Army was in doubt for lack of supplies, a harsh winter, expiring enlistments, and desertions. Washington was disappointed that many New Jersey residents were Loyalists or skeptical about the prospect of independence.{{sfnm|Ketchum|1999|1p=235|Chernow|2010|2p=264}}

Howe split up his British Army and posted a [[Hessian (soldier)|Hessian]] garrison at [[Trenton, New Jersey|Trenton]] to hold western New Jersey and the east shore of the Delaware,{{sfn|Taylor|2016|p=169}} but the army appeared complacent, and Washington and his generals devised a surprise attack on the Hessians at Trenton, which he codenamed "Victory or Death".{{sfn|Chernow|2010|pp=270–273}} The army was to cross the Delaware River to Trenton in three divisions: one led by Washington (2,400 troops), another by General [[James Ewing (Pennsylvania politician)|James Ewing]] (700), and the third by Colonel [[John Cadwalader (general)|John Cadwalader]] (1,500). The force was to then split, with Washington taking the [[Pennington, New Jersey|Pennington]] Road and General Sullivan traveling south on the river's edge.{{sfn|Chernow|2010|p=272}}
[[File:1819 Passage OfThe Delaware byThomasSully MFABoston.jpeg|thumb|''[[The Passage of the Delaware]]'', by [[Thomas Sully]], 1819 ([[Museum of Fine Arts, Boston]])]]
Washington first ordered a 60-mile search for [[Durham boat]]s to transport his army, and he ordered the destruction of vessels that could be used by the British.{{sfnm|Chernow|2010|1pp=270–272|Randall|1997|2p=319}} Washington [[George Washington's crossing of the Delaware River|crossed the Delaware River]] on [[Christmas]] night,{{sfn|Willcox|Arnstein|1988|p=164}} December 25, 1776, while he personally risked capture staking out the Jersey shoreline. His men followed across the ice-obstructed river in sleet and snow from [[McConkey's Ferry]], with 40 men per vessel. The wind churned up the waters, and they were pelted with hail, but by 3:00{{nbsp}}a.m. on December 26, they made it across with no losses.{{sfn|Chernow|2010|p=273}} Henry Knox was delayed, managing frightened horses and about 18 field guns on flat-bottomed ferries. Cadwalader and Ewing failed to cross due to the ice and heavy currents, and awaiting Washington doubted his planned attack on Trenton. Once Knox arrived, Washington proceeded to Trenton to take only his troops against the Hessians, rather than risk being spotted returning his army to Pennsylvania.{{sfnm|Chernow|2010|pp=273–274|Fischer|2004|2pp=215–219|Taylor|2016|1p=171}}

The troops spotted Hessian positions a mile from Trenton, so Washington split his force into two columns, rallying his men: "Soldiers keep by your officers. For God's sake, keep by your officers." The two columns were separated at the Birmingham crossroads. General Nathanael Greene's column took the upper Ferry Road, led by Washington, and General John Sullivan's column advanced on River Road. ([[:File:Battle of Trenton.Dean.USMA.edu.history.gif|See map]].){{sfn|Fischer|2004|pp=228–230}} The Americans marched in sleet and snowfall. Many were shoeless with bloodied feet, and two died of exposure. At sunrise, Washington led them in a surprise attack on the Hessians, aided by Major General Knox and artillery. The Hessians had 22 killed (including Colonel [[Johann Rall]]), 83 wounded, and 850 captured with supplies.{{sfnm|Chernow|2010|1p=276|Ferling|2002|2pp=146–147|Fischer|2004|3pp=232–234, 254, 405}}
[[File:The Capture of the Hessians at Trenton December 26 1776.jpeg|thumb|right|''[[The Capture of the Hessians at Trenton, December 26, 1776]]''<br />by [[John Trumbull]]|alt=Painting showing Washington on horseback, accepting the surrender of Hessian troops after the Battle at Trenton]]

Washington retreated across Delaware River to Pennsylvania but returned to New Jersey on January 3, launching [[Battle of Princeton|an attack]] on British regulars at [[Princeton, New Jersey|Princeton]], with 40 Americans killed or wounded and 273 British killed or captured.{{sfnm|Fischer|2004|p=254|Ketchum|1999|1pp=306–307|Alden|1996|2p=146}} American Generals [[Hugh Mercer]] and John Cadwalader were being driven back by the British when Mercer was mortally wounded, then Washington arrived and led the men in a counterattack which advanced to within {{convert|30|yards|m}} of the British line.{{sfn|Alden|1996|p=145}}

Some British troops retreated after a brief stand, while others took refuge in [[Nassau Hall]], which became the target of Colonel [[Alexander Hamilton]]'s cannons. Washington's troops charged, the British surrendered in less than an hour, and 194 soldiers laid down their arms.{{sfnm|Ketchum|1999|1pp=361–364|Fischer|2004|2p=339|Chernow|2010|3pp=276–278}} Howe retreated to New York City where his army remained inactive until early the next year.{{sfn|Taylor|2016|p=172}} Washington's depleted Continental Army took up winter headquarters in [[Morristown, New Jersey]] while disrupting British supply lines and expelling them from parts of New Jersey. Washington later said the British could have successfully counterattacked his encampment before his troops were dug in.{{sfn|Chernow|2010|pp=285–286}} The victories at Trenton and Princeton by Washington revived Patriot morale and changed the course of the war. {{sfn|Willcox|Arnstein|1988|p=164}}

The British still controlled New York, and many Patriot soldiers did not re-enlist or deserted after the harsh winter campaign. Congress instituted greater rewards for re-enlisting and punishments for desertion to effect greater troop numbers.{{sfn|Fischer|2004|p=151}} Strategically, Washington's victories were pivotal for the Revolution and quashed the British strategy of showing overwhelming force followed by offering generous terms.{{sfnm|Taylor|2016|1p=172|Fischer|2004|2p=367}} In February 1777, word reached London of the American victories at Trenton and Princeton, and the British realized the Patriots were in a position to demand unconditional independence.{{sfn|Ferling|2007|p=188}}

=== Brandywine, Germantown, and Saratoga ===

{{Main|Battle of Brandywine|Battle of Germantown|Battle of Saratoga}}

In July 1777, British General [[John Burgoyne]] led the [[Saratoga campaign]] south from Quebec through [[Lake Champlain]] and [[Siege of Fort Ticonderoga (1777)|recaptured Fort Ticonderoga]] intending to divide [[New England]], including control of the [[Hudson River]]. However, General Howe in British-occupied New York blundered, taking his army south to Philadelphia rather than up the Hudson River to join Burgoyne near [[Albany, New York|Albany]].{{sfn|Chernow|2010|pp=300–301}} Meanwhile, Washington and [[Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette]] rushed to Philadelphia to engage Howe and were shocked to learn of Burgoyne's progress in upstate New York, where the Patriots were led by General [[Philip Schuyler]] and successor [[Horatio Gates]]. Washington's army of less experienced men were defeated in the [[Philadelphia campaign|pitched battles]] at Philadelphia.{{sfnm|Randall|1997|1pp=340–341|Chernow|2010|2pp=301–304}}

Howe outmaneuvered Washington at the [[Battle of Brandywine]] on September 11, 1777, and marched unopposed into the nation's capital at Philadelphia. A Patriot [[Battle of Germantown|attack]] failed against the British at [[Germantown, Philadelphia|Germantown]] in October. Major General [[Thomas Conway]] prompted some members of Congress (referred to as the [[Conway Cabal]]) to consider removing Washington from command because of the losses incurred at Philadelphia. Washington's supporters resisted, and the matter was finally dropped after much deliberation.{{sfn|Heydt|2005|pp=50–73}} Once the plot was exposed, Conway wrote an apology to Washington, resigned, and returned to France.{{sfnm|Flexner|1965|1p=138|Randall|1997|2pp=354–355}}

Washington was concerned with Howe's movements during the Saratoga campaign to the north, and he was also aware that Burgoyne was moving south toward Saratoga from Quebec. Washington took some risks to support Gates' army, sending reinforcements north with Generals [[Benedict Arnold]], his most aggressive field commander, and [[Benjamin Lincoln]]. On October 7, 1777, Burgoyne tried to take [[Battles of Saratoga|Bemis Heights]] but was isolated from support by Howe. He was forced to retreat to Saratoga and ultimately surrendered after the [[Battles of Saratoga]]. As Washington suspected, Gates' victory emboldened his critics.{{sfn|Chernow|2010|pp=312–313}} Biographer John Alden maintains, "It was inevitable that the defeats of Washington's forces and the concurrent victory of the forces in upper New York should be compared." The admiration for Washington was waning, including little credit from John Adams.{{sfn|Alden|1996|p=163}} British commander Howe resigned in May 1778, left America forever, and was replaced by [[Henry Clinton (British Army officer, born 1730)|Sir Henry Clinton]].{{sfn|Ferling|2007|p=296}}

=== Valley Forge and Monmouth ===

{{Main|Valley Forge|Battle of Monmouth}}
[[File:Washington and Lafayette at Valley Forge.jpg|thumb|left|''Washington and Lafayette at Valley Forge'', by John Ward Dunsmore (1907)|alt=Painting showing Washington and [[Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette|Lafayette]] on horseback in a winter setting, at Valley Forge]]

Washington's army of 11,000 went into winter quarters at [[Valley Forge]] north of Philadelphia in December 1777. They suffered between 2,000 and 3,000 deaths in the extreme cold over six months, mostly from disease and lack of food, clothing, and shelter.{{sfnm|Ferling|2002|1pp=186|Alden|1996|2pp=165, 167|Freedman|2008|3p=30}} Meanwhile, the British were comfortably quartered in Philadelphia, paying for supplies in [[Pound sterling|pounds sterling]], while Washington struggled with a devalued [[Early American currency|American paper currency]]. The woodlands were soon exhausted of game, and by February, lowered morale and increased desertions ensued.{{sfn|Alden|1996|p=165}}

Washington made repeated petitions to the Continental Congress for provisions. He received a congressional delegation to check the Army's conditions and expressed the urgency of the situation, proclaiming: "Something must be done. Important alterations must be made." He recommended that Congress expedite supplies, and Congress agreed to strengthen and fund the army's supply lines by reorganizing the commissary department. By late February, supplies began arriving.{{sfn|Freedman|2008|p=42}}
[[File:BattleofMonmouth.jpg|thumb|''Washington Rallying the Troops at Monmouth'', [[Emanuel Leutze]] (1851–1854)]]

Baron [[Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben]]'s incessant drilling soon transformed Washington's recruits into a disciplined fighting force,{{sfnm|Randall|1997|1pp=342, 359|Ferling|2009|2p=172}} and the revitalized army emerged from Valley Forge early the following year.{{sfnm|Alden|1996|1p=168|Randall|1997|2pp=342, 356}} Washington promoted Von Steuben to Major General and made him chief of staff.{{sfn|Chernow|2010|p=336}}

In early 1778, the French responded to Burgoyne's defeat and entered into a [[Treaty of Alliance (1778)|Treaty of Alliance]] with the Americans. The Continental Congress ratified the treaty in May, which amounted to a French declaration of war against Britain.{{sfn|Taylor|2016|p=188}}

The British evacuated Philadelphia for New York that June and Washington summoned a war council of American and French Generals. He chose a partial attack on the retreating British at the [[Battle of Monmouth]]; the British were commanded by Howe's successor General [[Henry Clinton (British Army officer, born 1730)|Henry Clinton]]. Generals [[Charles Lee (general)|Charles Lee]] and Lafayette moved with 4,000 men, without Washington's knowledge, and bungled their first attack on June 28. Washington relieved Lee and achieved a draw after an expansive battle. At nightfall, the British continued their retreat to New York, and Washington moved his army outside the city.{{sfnm|Alden|1996|1pp=176–77|Ferling|2002|2pp=195–198}} Monmouth was Washington's last battle in the North; he valued the safety of his army more than towns with little value to the British.{{sfn|Chernow|2010|p=344}}

=== West Point espionage ===

{{Main|West Point|Military career of Benedict Arnold, 1777–1779}}

Washington became "America's first spymaster" by designing an espionage system against the British.{{sfn|Nagy|2016|p=274}} In 1778, Major [[Benjamin Tallmadge]] formed the [[Culper Ring]] at Washington's direction to covertly collect information about the British in New York.{{sfn|Rose|2006|pp=75, 224, 258–61}} Washington had disregarded incidents of disloyalty by [[Benedict Arnold]], who had distinguished himself in many battles.{{sfnm|Chernow|2010|1pp=378–387|Philbrick|2016|2p=35}}

During mid-1780, Arnold began supplying British spymaster [[John André]] with sensitive information intended to compromise Washington and capture [[West Point, New York|West Point]], a key American defensive position on the [[Hudson River]].{{sfnm|Adams|1928|1pp=365–366|Philbrick|2016|2pp=250–251}} Historians{{who|date=March 2021}} have noted as possible reasons for Arnold's treachery his anger at losing promotions to junior officers, or repeated slights{{clarify|date=March 2021}} from Congress. He was also deeply in debt, profiteering from the war, and disappointed by Washington's lack of support during his eventual [[court-martial]].{{sfnm|Chernow|2010|1p=380|Palmer|2010|2p=203|Flexner|1991|3pp=119–221|Rose|2006|4p=196}}
[[File:George washington.jpg|thumb|An engraving of Washington, likely made after his tenure in the army.]]
Arnold repeatedly asked for command of West Point, and Washington finally agreed in August.{{sfnm|Chernow|2010|1pp=378, 380–381|Lengel|2005|2p=322|Adams|1928|3p=366|Philbrick|2016|4pp=280–282}} Arnold met André on September 21, giving him plans to take over the garrison.{{sfnm|Adams|1928|1p=365|Palmer|2010|2pp=306, 315, 319, 320}} Militia forces captured André and discovered the plans, but Arnold escaped to New York.{{sfnm|Van Doren|1941|1pp=194–195|Adams|1928|2p=366|Palmer|2010|3p=410}} Washington recalled the commanders positioned under Arnold at key points around the fort to prevent any complicity, but he did not suspect Arnold's wife [[Peggy Shippen|Peggy]]. Washington assumed personal command at West Point and reorganized its defenses.{{sfnm|Palmer|2010|1pp=370–371|Middlekauff|2015|2p=232}} André's trial for espionage ended in a death sentence, and Washington offered to return him to the British in exchange for Arnold, but [[Henry Clinton (British Army officer, born 1730)|Clinton]] refused. André was hanged on October 2, 1780, despite his last request being to face a firing squad, to deter other spies.{{sfnm|Flexner|1991|1p=386|Rose|2006|2p=212}}

=== Southern theater and Yorktown ===

{{Main|Southern theater of the American Revolutionary War}}
[[File:Antoine-François Callet - Louis XVI, roi de France et de Navarre (1754-1793), revêtu du grand costume royal en 1779 - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|upright|French King [[Louis XVI of France|Louis XVI]] allied with Washington and Patriot American colonists|alt=Painting showing French King Louis XVI, standing, wearing formal King's robe]]

In late 1778, General Clinton shipped 3,000 troops from New York to Georgia and launched a Southern invasion against [[Savannah, Georgia|Savannah]], reinforced by 2,000 British and Loyalist troops. They repelled an attack by Patriots and [[French Navy|French naval forces]], which bolstered the British war effort.{{sfn|Taylor|2016|p=230}}

In mid-1779, Washington attacked [[Iroquois]] warriors of the [[Iroquois|Six Nations]] to force Britain's Indian allies out of New York, from which they had assaulted New England towns.{{sfn|Grizzard|2002|p=303}} The Indian warriors joined with [[Loyalist (American Revolution)|Loyalist]] rangers led by [[Walter Butler (Loyalist)|Walter Butler]] and viciously slew more than 200 frontiersmen in June, laying waste to the [[Wyoming Valley]] in Pennsylvania.{{sfn|Alden|1996|p=184}} In response, Washington ordered General John Sullivan to lead an [[Sullivan Expedition|expedition]] to effect "the total destruction and devastation" of Iroquois villages and take their women and children hostage. Those who managed to escape fled to Canada.{{sfn|Chernow|2010|p=360}}

Washington's troops went into quarters at Morristown, New Jersey during the winter of 1779–1780 and suffered their worst winter of the war, with temperatures well below freezing. [[New York Harbor]] was frozen over, snow and ice covered the ground for weeks, and the troops again lacked provisions.{{sfn|Mann|2008|p=108}}

Clinton assembled 12,500 troops and attacked [[Charleston, South Carolina|Charlestown, South Carolina]] in January 1780, defeating General [[Benjamin Lincoln]] who had only 5,100 Continental troops.{{sfn|Taylor|2016|p=234}} The British went on to occupy the [[South Carolina]] [[Piedmont (United States)|Piedmont]] in June, with no Patriot resistance. Clinton returned to New York and left 8,000 troops commanded by General [[Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess Cornwallis|Charles Cornwallis]].{{sfn|Taylor|2016|pp=234–235}} Congress replaced Lincoln with Horatio Gates; he failed in South Carolina and was replaced by Washington's choice of Nathaniel Greene, but the British already had the South in their grasp. Washington was reinvigorated, however, when Lafayette returned from France with more ships, men, and supplies,{{sfn|Alden|1996|pp=187–188}} and 5,000 veteran French troops led by Marshal [[Jean-Baptiste Donatien de Vimeur, comte de Rochambeau|Rochambeau]] arrived at [[Newport, Rhode Island]] in July 1780.{{sfn|Lancaster|Plumb|1985|p=311}} French naval forces then landed, led by Admiral [[François Joseph Paul de Grasse|Grasse]], and Washington encouraged Rochambeau to move his fleet south to launch a joint land and naval attack on Arnold's troops.{{sfn|Alden|1996|pp=197–199,206}}

Washington's army went into winter quarters at [[New Windsor, New York]] in December 1780, and Washington urged Congress and state officials to expedite provisions in hopes that the army would not "continue to struggle under the same difficulties they have hitherto endured".{{sfn|Alden|1996|p=193}} On March 1, 1781, Congress ratified the [[Articles of Confederation]], but the government that took effect on March{{nbsp}}2 did not have the power to levy taxes, and it loosely held the states together.{{sfn|Taylor|2016|p=339}}

General Clinton sent Benedict Arnold, now a British Brigadier General with 1,700 troops, to Virginia to capture [[Portsmouth, Virginia|Portsmouth]] and conduct raids on Patriot forces from there; Washington responded by sending Lafayette south to counter Arnold's efforts.{{sfn|Chernow|2010|p=403}} Washington initially hoped to bring the fight to New York, drawing off British forces from Virginia and ending the war there, but Rochambeau advised Grasse that [[Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess Cornwallis|Cornwallis]] in Virginia was the better target. Grasse's fleet arrived off the Virginia coast, and Washington saw the advantage. He made a feint towards Clinton in New York, then headed south to Virginia.{{sfnm|Alden|1996|1pp=198–99|Chernow|2010|2pp=403–404}}
[[File:Couder Yorktown Versailles.JPG|thumb|[[Siege of Yorktown]], Generals Washington and [[Jean-Baptiste Donatien de Vimeur, comte de Rochambeau|Rochambeau]] give last orders before the attack|alt=Generals Washington and Rochambeau, standing in front of HQ tent, giving last orders before the attack on Yorktown]]

The [[Siege of Yorktown (1781)|Siege of Yorktown]] was a decisive Allied victory by the combined forces of the Continental Army commanded by General Washington, the French Army commanded by the General Comte de Rochambeau, and the French Navy commanded by Admiral [[François Joseph Paul de Grasse|de Grasse]], in the defeat of Cornwallis' British forces. On August 19, the march to Yorktown led by Washington and Rochambeau began, which is known now as the [[Washington–Rochambeau Revolutionary Route|"celebrated march"]].{{sfn|Lengel|2005|p=335}} Washington was in command of an army of 7,800 Frenchmen, 3,100 militia, and 8,000 Continentals. Not well experienced in siege warfare, Washington often referred to the judgment of General Rochambeau and used his advice about how to proceed; however, Rochambeau never challenged Washington's authority as the battle's commanding officer.{{sfn|Chernow|2010|p=413}}

By late September, Patriot-French forces surrounded Yorktown, trapped the British army, and prevented British reinforcements from Clinton in the North, while the French navy emerged victorious at the [[Battle of the Chesapeake]]. The final American offensive was begun with a shot fired by Washington.{{sfn|Riley|1948|pp=375–395}} The siege ended with a British surrender on October 19, 1781; over 7,000 British soldiers were made [[Prisoner of war|prisoners of war]], in the last major land battle of the American Revolutionary War.{{sfnm|Alden|1996|1pp=198, 201|Chernow|2010|2pp=372–373, 418|Lengel|2005|3P=337}} Washington negotiated the terms of surrender for two days, and the official signing ceremony took place on October 19; Cornwallis claimed illness and was absent, sending General [[Charles O'Hara]] as his proxy.{{sfnm|1a1=Mann|1y=2008|1p=38|2a1=Lancaster|2a2=Plumb|2y=1985|2p=254|3a1=Chernow|3y=2010|3p=419}} As a gesture of goodwill, Washington held a dinner for the American, French, and British generals, all of whom fraternized on friendly terms and identified with one another as members of the same professional military [[caste]].{{sfn|Chernow|2010|p=419}}

After the surrender at Yorktown, a situation developed that threatened relations between the newly independent America and Britain.{{sfn|Henriques|2020|loc=chpt. 4}} Following a series of retributive executions between [[Patriot (American Revolution)|Patriots]] and [[Loyalists fighting in the American Revolution|Loyalists]], Washington, on May 18, 1782, wrote in a letter to General [[Moses Hazen]]<ref name="vernon_encyc_asgill_affair">{{cite web|title=Asgill Affair |url=https://www.mountvernon.org/library/digitalhistory/digital-encyclopedia/article/asgill-affair/ |publisher=Mount Vernon Ladies' Association|website=The Digital Encyclopedia of George Washington|access-date=May 26, 2020}}</ref> that a British captain would be executed in retaliation for the execution of [[Joshua Huddy]], a popular Patriot leader, who was [[Hanging|hanged]] at the direction of the Loyalist [[Richard Lippincott (Loyalist)|Richard Lippincott]]. Washington wanted Lippincott himself to be executed but was rebuffed.{{sfn|Flexner|1967|p=479}} Subsequently, [[Sir Charles Asgill, 2nd Baronet|Charles Asgill]] was chosen instead, by a drawing of lots from a hat. This was a violation of the 14th article of the Yorktown Articles of Capitulation, which protected prisoners of war from acts of retaliation.<ref name=vernon_encyc_asgill_affair /><ref>{{cite book|url= https://www.bartleby.com/43/17.html|title=Articles of Capitulation, Yorktown (1781)|series=The Harvard Classics, Vol. 43, 1909–14|via=Bartleby.com}}</ref> Later, Washington's feelings on matters changed and in a letter of November 13, 1782, to Asgill, he acknowledged Asgill's letter and situation, expressing his desire not to see any harm come to him.<ref>{{cite web|last=Washington|first=George|title=From George Washington to Charles Asgill, 13 November 1782 (Early Access Document)|url=https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/99-01-02-09931|publisher=National Historical Publications and Records Commission (The U.S. National Archives and Records Administration)|year=1782|access-date=May 26, 2020|archive-date=February 15, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200215120951/https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/99-01-02-09931|url-status=bot: unknown}} Also available via Internet Archive as archived on February 15, 2020.</ref> After much consideration between the [[Continental Congress]], [[Alexander Hamilton]], Washington, and appeals from the [[Louis XVI of France|French Crown]], Asgill was finally released,{{sfnm|Freeman|1952|1pp=414–415|Randall|1997|2pp=394–395|Chernow|2010|3pp=426–427}} where Washington issued Asgill a pass that allowed his passage to New York.{{sfn|Chernow|2010|p=427}}<ref name=vernon_encyc_asgill_affair />

=== Demobilization and resignation ===

[[File:General George Washington Resigning his Commission.jpg|thumb|left|''[[General George Washington Resigning His Commission]]'', by [[John Trumbull]], 1824|alt=Painting by John Trumbull, depicting General Washington, standing in Maryland State House hall, surrounded by statesmen and others, resigning his commission]]

As peace negotiations started, the British gradually evacuated troops from Savannah, Charlestown, and New York by 1783, and the French army and navy likewise departed.{{sfn|Taylor|2016|pp=313–315}} The American treasury was empty, unpaid, and mutinous soldiers forced the adjournment of Congress, and Washington dispelled unrest by suppressing the [[Newburgh Conspiracy]] in March 1783; Congress promised officers a five-year bonus.{{sfn|Kohn|1970|pp=187–220}} Washington submitted an account of $450,000 in expenses which he had advanced to the army. The account was settled, though it was allegedly vague about large sums and included expenses his wife had incurred through visits to his headquarters.{{sfn|Alden|1996|p=209}}

Washington [[George Washington's resignation as commander-in-chief|resigned as commander-in-chief]] once the [[Treaty of Paris (1783)|Treaty of Paris]] was signed, and he planned to retire to Mount Vernon. The treaty was ratified in April 1783, and [[Alexander Hamilton|Hamilton]]'s Congressional committee adapted the army for peacetime. Washington gave the Army's perspective to the committee in his ''Sentiments on a Peace Establishment''.{{sfn|Washington|1783}} The Treaty was signed on September 3, 1783, and Great Britain officially recognized the independence of the United States. Washington then disbanded his army, giving an eloquent farewell address to his soldiers on November 2.{{sfn|Washington|1799|p=343}} On November 25, the [[Evacuation Day (New York)|British evacuated New York City]], and Washington and Governor [[George Clinton (vice president)|George Clinton]] took possession.{{sfn|Randall|1997|p=405}}

Washington advised Congress in August 1783 to keep a standing army, create a "national militia" of separate state units, and establish a navy and a national military academy. He circulated his "Farewell" orders that discharged his troops, whom he called "one patriotic [[St Crispin's Day Speech|band of brothers]]". Before his return to Mount Vernon, he oversaw the [[Evacuation Day (New York)|evacuation of British forces in New York]] and was greeted by parades and celebrations, where he announced that Colonel Henry Knox had been promoted commander-in-chief.{{sfnm|Chernow|2010|1pp=446, 448–449, 451|Puls|2008|2pp=184–186}}

After leading the Continental Army for 8½ years, Washington bade farewell to his officers at [[Fraunces Tavern]] in December 1783 and resigned his commission days later, refuting Loyalist predictions that he would not relinquish his military command.{{sfn|Taylor|2016|p=319}} In a final appearance in uniform, he gave a statement to the Congress: "I consider it an indispensable duty to close this last solemn act of my official life, by commending the interests of our dearest country to the protection of Almighty God, and those who have the superintendence of them, to his holy keeping."{{sfnm|Alden|1996|1p=210|Chernow|2010|2pp=451–452, 455}} Washington's resignation was acclaimed at home and abroad and showed a skeptical world that the new republic would not degenerate into chaos.{{sfn|Chernow|2010|pp=454–455}}{{efn|Jefferson denounced the Society of Cincinnati's hereditary membership, but he praised Washington for his "moderation and virtue" in relinquishing command. Washington's wartime adversary [[George III of the United Kingdom|King George III]] reportedly praised him for this act.{{sfnm|Chernow|2010|1p=454|Taylor|2016|2pp=319–320}}}}
The same month, Washington was appointed president-general of the [[Society of the Cincinnati]], a hereditary fraternity, and he served for the remainder of his life.{{sfn|Chernow|2010|p=444}}{{efn|In May 1783, [[Henry Knox]] formed the [[Society of the Cincinnati]] to carry on the memory of the War of Independence and to establish a fraternity of officers. The Society was named after [[Lucius Quintus Cincinnatus|Cincinnatus]], a famous Roman military leader who relinquished his position after his Roman victory at [[Battle of Mount Algidus|Algidus (458 BC)]]. However, he had reservations about some of the society's precepts, including heredity requirements for membership and receiving money from foreign interests.{{sfnm|Chernow|2010|1pp=444, 461, 498|Ferling|2009|2p=xx|Parsons|1898|3p=96|Brumwell|2012|4p=412}}}}

== Early republic (1783–1789) ==

{{Further|Confederation Period|Articles of Confederation}}

=== Return to Mount Vernon ===

{{Quote box
|align=right
|salign=right
|width=20%
|quote=I am not only retired from all public employments but I am retiring within myself, and shall be able to view the solitary walk and tread the paths of private life with heartfelt satisfaction&nbsp;... I will move gently down the stream of life, until I sleep with my fathers.
|author=George Washington<br />Letter to Lafayette<br />February 1, 1784{{sfnm|Randall|1997|1p=410|Flexner|1974|2pp=182–183|3a1=Dalzell|3a2= Dalzell|3y=1998|3p=112}}}}

Washington was longing to return home after spending just ten days at Mount Vernon out of {{frac|8|1|2}} years of war. He arrived on Christmas Eve, delighted to be "free of the bustle of a camp and the busy scenes of public life".{{sfn|Ferling|2009|p=246}} He was a celebrity and was fêted during a visit to his mother at Fredericksburg in February 1784, and he received a constant stream of visitors wishing to pay their respects to him at Mount Vernon.{{sfnm|Chernow|2010|1p=462|Ferling|2009|2pp=255–256}}

Washington reactivated his interests in the [[Great Dismal Swamp]] and [[Potomac Company|Potomac canal]] projects begun before the war, though neither paid him any dividends, and he undertook a 34-day, 680-mile (1090&nbsp;km) trip to check on his land holdings in the Ohio Country.{{sfn|Ferling|2009|pp=247–255}} He oversaw the completion of the remodeling work at Mount Vernon, which transformed his residence into the mansion that survives to this day—although his financial situation was not strong. Creditors paid him in depreciated wartime currency, and he owed significant amounts in taxes and wages. Mount Vernon had made no profit during his absence, and he saw persistently poor crop yields due to pestilence and poor weather. His estate recorded its eleventh year running at a deficit in 1787, and there was little prospect of improvement.{{sfnm|Ferling|2009|1pp=246–247|Chernow|2010|2pp=552–553|Ellis|2004|3p=167}} Washington undertook a new landscaping plan and succeeded in cultivating a range of fast-growing trees and shrubs that were native to North America.{{sfnm|Wulf|2012|1p=52|Subak|2018|2pp=43–44}} He also began [[animal husbandry|breeding]] [[mule]]s after having been gifted a Spanish [[donkey|jack]] by [[King Charles III of Spain]] in 1784. There were few mules in the United States at that time, and he believed that properly bred mules would revolutionize [[agriculture]] and [[transportation]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Royal Gift (Donkey) |website=George Washington's Mount Vernon |url=https://www.mountvernon.org/library/digitalhistory/digital-encyclopedia/article/royal-gift-donkey/}}</ref>

=== Constitutional Convention of 1787 ===

{{Main|Constitutional Convention (United States)}}
[[File:Shays' Rebellion.jpg|left|thumb|[[Shays' Rebellion]] confirmed for Washington the need to overhaul the Articles of Confederation.]]

Before returning to private life in June 1783, Washington called for a strong union. Though he was concerned that he might be criticized for meddling in civil matters, he sent a circular letter to all the states, maintaining that the [[Articles of Confederation]] was no more than "a rope of sand" linking the states. He believed the nation was on the verge of "anarchy and confusion", was vulnerable to foreign intervention, and that a national constitution would unify the states under a strong central government.{{sfnm|Alden|1996|1p=221|Chernow|2010|2p=518|Ferling|2009|3p=266}} When [[Shays' Rebellion]] erupted in Massachusetts on August 29, 1786, over taxation, Washington was further convinced that a national constitution was needed.{{sfn|Chernow|2010|pp=517–519}} Some nationalists feared that the new republic had descended into lawlessness, and they met together on September 11, 1786, at [[Annapolis Convention (1786)|Annapolis]] to ask Congress to revise the Articles of Confederation. One of their biggest efforts, however, was getting Washington to attend.{{sfnm|Taylor|2016|1pp=373–374|Ferling|2009|2p=266}} Congress agreed to a Constitutional Convention to be held in Philadelphia in Spring 1787, and each state was to send delegates.{{sfnm|Chernow|2010|1p=523|Taylor|2016|2pp=373–374}}

On December 4, 1786, Washington was chosen to lead the Virginia delegation, but he declined on December 21. He had concerns about the legality of the convention and consulted [[James Madison]], [[Henry Knox]], and others. They persuaded him to attend it, however, as his presence might induce reluctant states to send delegates and smooth the way for the ratification process.{{sfnm|Chernow|2010|1pp=220–221|Ferling|2009|2p=266}} On March 28, Washington told Governor [[Edmund Randolph]] that he would attend the convention but made it clear that he was urged to attend.{{sfnm|Ferling|2009|1p=266|Chernow|2010|2pp=218, 220–224, 520–526}}
[[File:Scene at the Signing of the Constitution of the United States.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|''[[Scene at the Signing of the Constitution of the United States]]'' by [[Howard Chandler Christy]], 1940. Washington is the presiding officer standing at right.|alt=Painting by Howard Chandler Christy, depicting the signing of the Constitution of the United States, with Washington as the presiding officer standing at right]]

Washington arrived in Philadelphia on May 9, 1787, though a quorum was not attained until Friday, May 25. Benjamin Franklin nominated Washington to preside over the convention, and he was unanimously elected to serve as president general.{{sfnm|Chernow|2010|1pp=520–521, 523, 526, 529|Unger|2013|2p=33}} The convention's state-mandated purpose was to revise the [[Articles of Confederation]] with "all such alterations and further provisions" required to improve them, and the new government would be established when the resulting document was "duly confirmed by the several states".{{sfn|Elliot|1827|pp=25–36}} [[Edmund Randolph|Governor Edmund Randolph of Virginia]] introduced Madison's [[Virginia Plan]] on May 27, the third day of the convention. It called for an entirely new constitution and a sovereign national government, which Washington highly recommended.{{sfn|Ferling|2010|pp=359–360}}

Washington wrote [[Alexander Hamilton]] on July 10: "I almost despair of seeing a favorable issue to the proceedings of our convention and do therefore repent having had any agency in the business."{{sfnm|Alden|1996|pp=226–27}} Nevertheless, he lent his prestige to the goodwill and work of the other delegates. He unsuccessfully lobbied many to support ratification of the [[Constitution of the United States|Constitution]], such as anti-federalist [[Patrick Henry]]; Washington told him "the adoption of it under the present circumstances of the Union is in my opinion desirable" and declared the alternative would be anarchy.{{sfn|Alden|1996|p=229}} Washington and Madison then spent four days at Mount Vernon evaluating the new government's transition.{{sfn|Chernow|2010|pp=545–546}}

=== Chancellor of William & Mary ===
In 1788, the Board of Visitors of the [[College of William & Mary]] decided to re-establish the position of Chancellor, and elected Washington to the office on January 18.<ref name="chancellor">{{cite web |title=Duties and History |url=https://www.wm.edu/about/administration/chancellor/duties/index.php |publisher=[[College of William & Mary]] |access-date=April 2, 2021}}</ref> The College Rector Samuel Griffin wrote to Washington inviting him to the post, and in a letter dated April 30, 1788, Washington accepted the position of the 14th [[Chancellor of the College of William & Mary]].<ref name="chancellor" />{{sfn|Washington|1788a}} He continued to serve in the post through his presidency until his death on December 14, 1799.<ref name="chancellor" />

=== First presidential election ===

{{Main|1788–89 United States presidential election}}

The delegates to the Convention anticipated a Washington presidency and left it to him to define the office once elected.{{sfn|Alden|1996|pp=226–27}}{{efn|Starting in 1774, 14 men served as [[President of the Continental Congress]] but bore no relationship to the presidency established under Article II of the Constitution. Under the Articles of Confederation, Congress called its presiding officer "President of the United States in Congress Assembled", but this position had no national executive powers.{{sfnm|Jensen|1948|1pp=178–179|Unger|2013|2pp=61,146|3a1=Jillson|3a2=Wilson|3y=1994|3p=77}}}} The state electors under the Constitution voted for the president on February 4, 1789, and Washington suspected that most republicans had not voted for him.{{sfnm|1a1=Chernow|1y=2010|1pp=559–560|2a1=Ferling|2y=2009|2p=361}} The mandated March{{nbsp}}4 date passed without a Congressional quorum to count the votes, but a quorum was reached on April 5. The votes were tallied the next day,{{sfn|Chernow|2010|p=551}} and Congressional Secretary [[Charles Thomson]] was sent to Mount Vernon to tell Washington he had been elected president. Washington won the majority of every state's electoral votes; John Adams received the next highest number of votes and therefore became vice president.{{sfn|Ferling|2009|p=274}} Washington had "anxious and painful sensations" about leaving the "domestic felicity" of Mount Vernon, but departed for [[New York City]] on April 16 to be inaugurated.{{sfnm|Ferling|2009|1pp=274–275|Chernow|2010|2pp=559–561|Washington|1789}}

== Presidency (1789–1797) ==

{{Main|Presidency of George Washington}}
[[File:George Washington 1795.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|left|''President George Washington'', Gilbert Stuart (1795)|alt=Painting by Gilbert Stuart (1795), formal portrait of President George Washington]]

Washington was [[Presidency of George Washington|inaugurated]] on April 30, 1789, taking the [[Oath of office of the President of the United States|oath of office]] at [[Federal Hall]] in New York City.{{sfnm|Cooke|2002|1p=4|Chernow|2010|2pp=550–551|Fitzpatrick|1936|3p=522}}{{efn|There has been debate over whether Washington added "so help me God" to the end of the oath.{{sfnm|Irving|1857|1p=475|Alden|1996|2p=236}}}} His coach was led by militia and a marching band and followed by statesmen and foreign dignitaries in an inaugural parade, with a crowd of 10,000.{{sfnm|Chernow|2010|1pp=566–567|Randall|1997|2p=448}} Chancellor [[Robert R. Livingston (chancellor)|Robert R. Livingston]] administered the oath, using a [[George Washington Inaugural Bible|Bible provided by the Masons]], after which the militia fired a 13-gun salute.{{sfnm|Cooke|2002|1p=4|Chernow|2010|2p=568}} Washington read a speech in the Senate Chamber, asking "that Almighty Being who rules over the universe, who presides in the councils of nations—and whose providential aids can supply every human defect, consecrate the liberties and happiness of the people of the United States".{{sfnm|Randall|1997|1p=448|Alden|1996|2p=236}} Though he wished to serve without a salary, Congress insisted adamantly that he accept it, later providing Washington $25,000 per year to defray costs of the presidency.{{sfnm|Chernow|2010|1p=552|Fitzpatrick|1936|2loc=v. 19, p. 522}}

Washington wrote to James Madison: "As the first of everything in our situation will serve to establish a precedent, it is devoutly wished on my part that these precedents be fixed on true principles."{{sfn|Unger|2013|p=76}} To that end, he preferred the title "Mr. President" over more majestic names proposed by the Senate, including "His Excellency" and "His Highness the President".{{sfn|Bassett|1906|p=155}} His executive precedents included the inaugural address, messages to Congress, and the [[Cabinet of the United States|cabinet form]] of the [[Federal government of the United States|executive branch]].{{sfn|Unger|2013|pp=236–37}}

Washington had planned to resign after his first term, but the political strife in the nation convinced him he should remain in office.{{sfn|Chernow|2010|pp=674–675}} He was an able administrator and a judge of talent and character, and he regularly talked with department heads to get their advice.{{sfnm|Ellis|2004|1pp=197–98|Unger|2013|2pp=236–37}} He tolerated opposing views, despite fears that a democratic system would lead to political violence, and he conducted a smooth transition of power to his successor.{{sfnm|Genovese|2009|1p=589|Unger|2013|2pp=236–37}} He remained non-partisan throughout his presidency and opposed the divisiveness of political parties, but he favored a strong central government, was sympathetic to a Federalist form of government, and leery of the Republican opposition.{{sfnm|Chernow|2010|1pp=696–698|Randall|1997|2p=478}}

Washington dealt with major problems. The old [[Confederation Period|Confederation]] lacked the powers to handle its workload and had weak leadership, no executive, a small bureaucracy of clerks, a large debt, worthless paper money, and no power to establish taxes.{{sfn|Cooke|2002|p=5}} He had the task of assembling an executive department and relied on [[Tobias Lear]] for advice selecting its officers.{{sfn|Chernow|2010|p=575}} Great Britain refused to relinquish its forts in the American West,{{sfn|Cooke|2002|p=5}} and Barbary pirates preyed on American merchant ships in the Mediterranean at a time when the United States did not even have a navy.{{sfn|Chernow|2010|p=514}}

=== Cabinet and executive departments ===

{{See also|Cabinet of the United States}}
{{Infobox U.S. Cabinet
|align=right
|Name=Washington
|President=George Washington
|President start=1789
|President end=1797
|Vice President=[[John Adams]]
|Vice President start=1789
|Vice President end=1797
|State=[[John Jay]] (acting)
|State start=1789
|State end=1790
|State 2=[[Thomas Jefferson]]
|State start 2=1790
|State end 2=1793
|State 3=[[Edmund Randolph]]
|State start 3=1794
|State end 3=1795
|State 4=[[Timothy Pickering]]
|State start 4=1795
|State end 4=1797
|Treasury=[[Alexander Hamilton]]
|Treasury start=1789
|Treasury end=1795
|Treasury 2=[[Oliver Wolcott Jr.]]
|Treasury start 2=1795
|Treasury end 2=1797
|War=[[Henry Knox]]
|War start=1789
|War end=1794
|War 2=[[Timothy Pickering]]
|War date 2=1795
|War 3=[[James McHenry]]
|War start 3=1796
|War end 3=1797
|Justice=[[Edmund Randolph]]
|Justice start=1789
|Justice end=1794
|Justice 2=[[William Bradford (Attorney General)|William Bradford]]
|Justice start 2=1794
|Justice end 2=1795
|Justice 3=[[Charles Lee (Attorney General)|Charles Lee]]
|Justice start 3=1795
|Justice end 3=1797
}}

Congress created executive departments in 1789, including the [[United States Department of State|State Department]] in July, the [[United States Department of War|Department of War]] in August, and the [[United States Department of the Treasury|Treasury Department]] in September. Washington appointed fellow Virginian [[Edmund Randolph]] as Attorney General, [[Samuel Osgood]] as Postmaster General, [[Thomas Jefferson]] as Secretary of State, and [[Henry Knox]] as [[United States Secretary of War|Secretary of War]]. Finally, he appointed [[Alexander Hamilton]] as [[United States Secretary of the Treasury|Secretary of the Treasury]]. Washington's cabinet became a consulting and advisory body, not mandated by the Constitution.{{sfnm|Ferling|2009|1pp=281–282|Cooke|2002|2pp=4–5}}

Washington's cabinet members formed rival parties with sharply opposing views, most fiercely illustrated between Hamilton and Jefferson.{{sfnm|Cooke|2002|1p=5|Banning|1974|2p=5}} Washington restricted cabinet discussions to topics of his choosing, without participating in the debate. He occasionally requested cabinet opinions in writing and expected department heads to agreeably carry out his decisions.{{sfn|Cooke|2002|p=5}}

=== Domestic issues ===

Washington was apolitical and opposed the formation of parties, suspecting that conflict would undermine republicanism.{{sfn|Elkins|McKitrick|1995|p=290}} His closest advisors formed two factions, portending the [[First Party System]]. Secretary of the Treasury [[Alexander Hamilton]] formed the [[Federalist Party]] to promote national credit and a financially powerful nation. Secretary of State [[Thomas Jefferson]] opposed Hamilton's agenda and founded the [[Democratic-Republican Party|Jeffersonian Republicans]]. Washington favored Hamilton's agenda, however, and it ultimately went into effect—resulting in bitter controversy.{{sfn|Cooke|2002|p=7}}

Washington proclaimed November 26 as a day of [[Thanksgiving (United States)|Thanksgiving]] to encourage national unity. "It is the duty of all nations to acknowledge the providence of Almighty God, to obey His will, to be grateful for His benefits, and humbly to implore His protection and favor." He spent that day fasting and visiting debtors in prison to provide them with food and beer.{{sfnm|Chernow|2010|1pp=585, 609|Henriques|2006|2p=65|Novak|2007|3pp=144–146}}

In response to two antislavery petitions, Georgia and South Carolina objected and were threatening to "blow the trumpet of civil war". Washington and Congress responded with a series of pro-slavery measures: citizenship was denied to black immigrants; slaves were barred from serving in state militias; two more slave states (Kentucky in 1792, Tennessee in 1796) were admitted; and the continuation of slavery in federal territories south of the [[Ohio River]] was guaranteed. On February 12, 1793, Washington signed into law the [[Fugitive slave laws in the United States|Fugitive Slave Act]], which overrode state laws and courts, allowing agents to cross state lines to capture and return escaped slaves.{{sfnm|Chernow|2010|1p=758|Taylor|2016|2pp=399–400}} Many in the north decried the law believing the act allowed bounty hunting and the kidnappings of blacks.{{sfn|Taylor|2016|pp=399–400}} The [[Slave Trade Act of 1794]], sharply limiting American involvement in the [[Atlantic slave trade]], was also enacted.{{sfn|Bassett|1906|pp=187–189}}

==== National Bank ====

[[File:Philadelphia Presidents house.jpg|thumb|left|The President's House in Philadelphia was Washington's residence from 1790 to 1797|alt=Engraving of President Washington's House in Philadelphia, his residence from 1790 to 1797]]

Washington's first term was largely devoted to economic concerns, in which Hamilton had devised various plans to address matters.{{sfn|Chernow|2005|p=345}} The establishment of public credit became a primary challenge for the federal government.{{sfn|Banning|1974|pp=5–7}} Hamilton submitted a report to a deadlocked Congress, and he, Madison, and Jefferson reached the [[Compromise of 1790]] in which Jefferson agreed to Hamilton's debt proposals in exchange for moving the nation's capital temporarily to Philadelphia and then south near [[Georgetown (Washington, D.C.)|Georgetown]] on the [[Potomac River]].{{sfn|Cooke|2002|p=7}} The terms were legislated in the [[Funding Act of 1790]] and the [[Residence Act]], both of which Washington signed into law. Congress authorized the assumption and payment of the nation's debts, with funding provided by customs duties and excise taxes.{{sfn|Cooke|2002|pp=7–8}}

Hamilton created controversy among Cabinet members by advocating establishing the [[First Bank of the United States]]. Madison and Jefferson objected, but the bank easily passed Congress. Jefferson and [[Edmund Randolph|Randolph]] insisted that the new bank was beyond the authority granted by the constitution, as Hamilton believed. Washington sided with Hamilton and signed the legislation on February 25, and the rift became openly hostile between Hamilton and Jefferson.{{sfn|Cooke|2002|p=8}}

The nation's [[Panic of 1792|first financial crisis]] occurred in March 1792. Hamilton's Federalists exploited large loans to gain control of U.S. debt securities, causing a run on the national bank;{{sfn|Sobel|1968|p=27}} the markets returned to normal by mid-April.{{sfnm|Banning|1974|1p=9|Sobel|1968|2p=30}} Jefferson believed Hamilton was part of the scheme, despite Hamilton's efforts to ameliorate, and Washington again found himself in the middle of a feud.{{sfn|Chernow|2010|pp=673–674}}

==== Jefferson–Hamilton feud ====

{{multiple image
| align = right
| direction = horizontal
| width =
| caption_align = center
| header = Jefferson and Hamilton
| header_background = beige
| width1 = 138
| image1 = T Jefferson by Charles Willson Peale 1791 2.jpg
| alt1 = Formal portrait of Thomas Jefferson, part of a dual image of Jefferson and Hamilton
| caption1 = [[Thomas Jefferson]]
| width2 = 162
| image2 = Alexander Hamilton portrait by John Trumbull 1806, detail.jpg
| alt2 = Formal portrait of Alexander Hamilton, part of a dual image of Jefferson and Hamilton
| caption2 = [[Alexander Hamilton]]
}}
Jefferson and Hamilton adopted diametrically opposed political principles. Hamilton believed in a strong national government requiring a national bank and foreign loans to function, while Jefferson believed the states and the farm element should primarily direct the government; he also resented the idea of banks and foreign loans. To Washington's dismay, the two men persistently entered into disputes and infighting.{{sfnm|Chernow|2010|1pp=515, 627–630, 648–650|Randall|1997|2pp=452, 463, 468–471}} Hamilton demanded that Jefferson resign if he could not support Washington, and Jefferson told Washington that Hamilton's fiscal system would lead to the overthrow of the Republic.{{sfnm|Banning|1974|1p=8|Cooke|2002|2p=9}} Washington urged them to call a truce for the nation's sake, but they ignored him.{{sfnm|Cooke|2002|1p=9|Fitzpatrick|1936|2loc=v. 19, p. 523}}

Washington reversed his decision to retire after his first term to minimize party strife, but the feud continued after his re-election.{{sfnm|Banning|1974|1p=8|Cooke|2002|2p=9}} Jefferson's political actions, his support of Freneau's ''National Gazette'',{{sfn|Elkins|McKitrick|1995|pp=240, 285, 290, 361}} and his attempt to undermine Hamilton nearly led Washington to dismiss him from the cabinet; Jefferson ultimately resigned his position in December 1793, and Washington forsook him from that time on.{{sfnm|Cooke|2002|1p=9|Chernow|2005|2p=427}}

The feud led to the well-defined Federalist and Republican parties, and party affiliation became necessary for election to Congress by 1794.{{sfn|Ferling|2013|pp=222, 283–284, 301–302}} Washington remained aloof from congressional attacks on Hamilton, but he did not publicly protect him, either. The [[Hamilton–Reynolds affair|Hamilton–Reynolds sex scandal]] opened Hamilton to disgrace, but Washington continued to hold him in "very high esteem" as the dominant force in establishing federal law and government.{{sfn|Ferling|2013|pp= 301–302}}

==== Whiskey Rebellion ====

In March 1791, at Hamilton's urging, with support from Madison, Congress imposed an excise tax on distilled spirits to help curtail the national debt, which took effect in July.{{sfn|Chernow|2005|pp=342–343}} Grain farmers strongly protested in Pennsylvania's frontier districts; they argued that they were unrepresented and were shouldering too much of the debt, comparing their situation to excessive British taxation before the Revolutionary War. On August 2, Washington assembled his cabinet to discuss how to deal with the situation. Unlike Washington, who had reservations about using force, Hamilton had long waited for such a situation and was eager to suppress the rebellion by using federal authority and force.{{sfn|Kohn|1972|pp=567–568, 570}} Not wanting to involve the federal government if possible, Washington called on Pennsylvania state officials to take the initiative, but they declined to take military action. On August 7, Washington issued his first proclamation for calling up state militias. After appealing for peace, he reminded the protestors that, unlike the rule of the British crown, the Federal law was issued by state-elected representatives.{{sfnm|Chernow|2010|1pp=719–721|Puls|2008|2p=219}}

Threats and violence against tax collectors, however, escalated into defiance against federal authority in 1794 and gave rise to the [[Whiskey Rebellion]]. Washington issued a final proclamation on September 25, threatening the use of military force to no avail.{{sfnm|Chernow|2010|1pp=719–721|Puls|2008|2p=219}} The federal army was not up to the task, so Washington invoked the [[Militia Acts of 1792|Militia Act of 1792]] to summon state militias.{{sfn|Coakley|1996|pp=43–49}} Governors sent troops, initially commanded by Washington, who gave the command to [[Henry Lee III|Light-Horse Harry Lee]] to lead them into the rebellious districts. They took 150 prisoners, and the remaining rebels dispersed without further fighting. Two of the prisoners were condemned to death, but Washington exercised his Constitutional authority for the first time and pardoned them.{{sfnm|Chernow|2010|1pp=721, 726|Kohn|1972|2pp=567–84}}

Washington's forceful action demonstrated that the new government could protect itself and its tax collectors. This represented the first use of federal military force against the states and citizens,{{sfn|Kohn|1972|pp=567–84}} and remains the only time an incumbent president has commanded troops in the field. Washington justified his action against "certain self-created societies", which he regarded as "subversive organizations" that threatened the national union. He did not dispute their right to protest, but he insisted that their dissent must not violate federal law. Congress agreed and extended their congratulations to him; only Madison and Jefferson expressed indifference.{{sfn|Ellis|2004|pp=225–226}}

=== Foreign affairs ===

[[File:Gilbert Stuart, John Jay, 1794, NGA 75023.jpg|thumb|upright|left|alt=Gilbert Stuart portrait of Chief Justice John Jay in robes, seated and holding a law book|[[John Jay]], negotiator of the [[Jay Treaty]]]]

In April 1792, the [[French Revolutionary Wars]] began between Great Britain and France, and Washington declared America's neutrality. The revolutionary government of France sent diplomat [[Edmond-Charles Genêt|Citizen Genêt]] to America, and he was welcomed with great enthusiasm. He created a network of new [[Democratic-Republican Societies]] promoting France's interests, but Washington denounced them and demanded that the French recall Genêt.{{sfn|Elkins|McKitrick|1995|pp=335–54}} The National Assembly of France granted Washington honorary French citizenship on August 26, 1792, during the early stages of the [[French Revolution]].{{sfn|George Washington's Mount Vernon, Essay, citizenship}} Hamilton formulated the [[Jay Treaty]] to normalize trade relations with Great Britain while removing them from western forts, and also to resolve financial debts remaining from the Revolution.{{sfn|Elkins|McKitrick|1995|loc=ch. 9}} Chief Justice [[John Jay]] acted as Washington's negotiator and signed the treaty on November 19, 1794; critical Jeffersonians, however, supported France. Washington deliberated, then supported the treaty because it avoided war with Britain,{{sfn|Chernow|2010|p=730}} but was disappointed that its provisions favored Britain.{{sfn|Ferling|2009|p=340}} He mobilized public opinion and secured ratification in the Senate{{sfnm|Estes|2000|1pp=393–422|Estes|2001|2pp=127–58}} but faced frequent public criticism.{{sfn|Ferling|2009|p=344}}

The British agreed to abandon their forts around the [[Great Lakes]], and the United States modified the boundary with Canada. The government liquidated numerous pre-Revolutionary debts, and the British opened the [[British West Indies]] to American trade. The treaty secured peace with Britain and a decade of prosperous trade. Jefferson claimed that it angered France and "invited rather than avoided" war.{{sfn|Ferling|2009|p=343}} Relations with France deteriorated afterward, leaving succeeding president [[John Adams]] with prospective war.{{sfnm|Grizzard|2005|1p=263|Lengel|2005|2p=357}} [[James Monroe]] was the American Minister to France, but Washington recalled him for his opposition to the Treaty. The French refused to accept his replacement [[Charles Cotesworth Pinckney]], and the French Directory declared the authority to seize American ships two days before Washington's term ended. {{sfn|Akers|2002|p=27}}

=== Native American affairs ===

{{see|Native Americans in the United States|Battle of Fallen Timbers|Treaty of New York (1790)|Treaty of Greenville|Northwest Territory|Ohio Country}}
[[File:Red Jacket 2.jpg|left|upright=0.8|thumb|Seneca Chief [[Sagoyewatha]] was Washington's peace emissary with the Western Confederation.|alt=Portrait of Seneca Chief Sagoyewatha, Washington's peace emissary]]

[[Ron Chernow]] describes Washington as always trying to be even-handed in dealing with the Natives. He states that Washington hoped they would abandon their itinerant hunting life and adapt to fixed agricultural communities in the manner of white settlers. He also maintains that Washington never advocated outright confiscation of tribal land or the forcible removal of tribes and that he berated American settlers who abused natives, admitting that he held out no hope for pacific relations with the natives as long as "frontier settlers entertain the opinion that there is not the same crime (or indeed no crime at all) in killing a native as in killing a white man."{{sfn|Chernow|2010|p=666}}

By contrast, [[Colin G. Calloway]] writes that "Washington had a lifelong obsession with getting Indian land, either for himself or for his nation, and initiated policies and campaigns that had devastating effects in Indian country."{{sfn|Calloway|2018|p=38}} "The growth of the nation," Galloway has stated, "demanded the dispossession of Indian people. Washington hoped the process could be bloodless and that Indian people would give up their lands for a "fair" price and move away. But if Indians refused and resisted, as they often did, he felt he had no choice but to "extirpate" them and that the expeditions he sent to destroy Indian towns were therefore entirely justified."<ref>[https://blog.oup.com/2018/10/author-historian-colin-g-calloway/ Sitting down with author and historian Colin G. Calloway], blog.oup.com October 18, 2018, accessed October 20, 2018</ref>

During the Fall of 1789, Washington had to contend with the British refusing to evacuate their forts in the Northwest frontier and their [[Northwest Indian War|concerted efforts]] to incite hostile Indian tribes to attack [[European Americans|American]] settlers.{{sfnm|Fitzpatrick|1936|1p=523|Cooke|2002|2pp=9–10|Chernow|2010|3p=665}}{{efn|A modern term for Indian is Native American.{{sfn|Cresswell|2010|page=222}}}} The Northwest tribes under [[Miami people|Miami]] chief [[Little Turtle]] allied with the British Army to resist American expansion, and killed 1,500 settlers between 1783 and 1790.{{sfn|Waldman|Braun|2009|p=149}}

Washington decided that "The Government of the United States are determined that their Administration of Indian Affairs shall be directed entirely by the great principles of Justice and humanity",{{sfn|Harless|2018}} and provided that treaties should negotiate their land interests.{{sfn|Harless|2018}} The administration regarded powerful tribes as foreign nations, and Washington even smoked a [[Ceremonial pipe|peace pipe]] and drank wine with them at the [[President's House (Philadelphia)|Philadelphia presidential house]].{{sfn|Calloway|2018|p=2}} He made numerous attempts to conciliate them;{{sfnm|Flexner|1969|1p=304|Taylor|2016|2p=406}} he equated killing indigenous peoples with killing whites and sought to integrate them into [[European Americans|European-American]] culture.{{sfn|Cooke|2002|p=10}} Secretary of War [[Henry Knox]] also attempted to encourage agriculture among the tribes.{{sfnm|Flexner|1969|1p=304|Taylor|2016|2p=406}}

In the Southwest, negotiations failed between federal commissioners and raiding Indian tribes seeking retribution. Washington invited [[Muscogee|Creek]] Chief [[Alexander McGillivray]] and 24 leading chiefs to New York to negotiate a treaty and treated them like foreign dignitaries. Knox and McGillivray concluded the [[Treaty of New York (1790)|''Treaty of New York'']] on August 7, 1790, in [[Federal Hall]], which provided the tribes with agricultural supplies and McGillivray with a rank of Brigadier General Army and a salary of $1,500.{{sfnm|Grizzard|2002|1pp=256–257|Puls|2008|2pp=207–208}}
[[File:Fallen timbers.jpg|thumb|right|alt=A R.F. Zogbaum scene of the Battle of Fallen Timbers includes Native Americans aiming as cavalry soldiers charge with raised swords and one soldier is shot and loses his mount|''Battle of Fallen Timbers'' by R. F. Zogbaum, 1896. The [[Ohio Country]] was ceded to America in its aftermath.]]

In 1790, Washington sent Brigadier General [[Josiah Harmar]] to pacify the Northwest tribes, but Little Turtle routed him twice and forced him to withdraw.{{sfnm|1a1=Chernow|1y=2010|1pp=667–678|2a1=Gaff|2y=2004|2pp=xvii|3a1=Waldman|3a2=Braun|3y=2009|3p=149}} The [[Western Confederacy]] of tribes used guerrilla tactics and were an effective force against the sparsely manned American Army. Washington sent Major General [[Arthur St. Clair]] from [[Fort Washington (Ohio)|Fort Washington]] on an expedition to restore peace in the territory in 1791. On November 4, St. Clair's forces were ambushed and [[St. Clair's defeat|soundly defeated]] by tribal forces with few survivors, despite Washington's warning of surprise attacks. Washington was outraged over what he viewed to be excessive Native American brutality and execution of captives, including women and children.{{sfnm|Gaff|2004|1pp=3–6|Ferling|2009|2p=340}}

St. Clair resigned his commission, and Washington replaced him with the Revolutionary War hero General [[Anthony Wayne]]. From 1792 to 1793, Wayne instructed his troops on Native American warfare tactics and instilled discipline which was lacking under St. Clair.{{sfnm|Cooke|2002|1p=10|Chernow|2010|2p=668}} In August 1794, Washington sent Wayne into tribal territory with authority to drive them out by burning their villages and crops in the [[Maumee, Ohio|Maumee Valley]].{{sfnm|Taylor|2016|1p=406|Chernow|2010|2p=668}} On August 24, the American army under Wayne's leadership defeated the western confederacy at the [[Battle of Fallen Timbers]], and the [[Treaty of Greenville]] in August 1795 opened up two-thirds of the [[Ohio Country]] for American settlement.{{sfnm|Cooke|2002|1p=14|Taylor|2016|2p=406}}

=== Second term ===

Originally Washington had planned to retire after his first term, while many Americans could not imagine anyone else taking his place.{{sfn|Chernow|2010|p=674}} After nearly four years as president, and dealing with the infighting in his own cabinet and with partisan critics, Washington showed little enthusiasm in running for a second term, while Martha also wanted him not to run.{{sfnm|Chernow|2010|1pp=675, 678|Ferling|2009|2p=362|Randall|1997|3p=484}} James Madison urged him not to retire, that his absence would only allow the dangerous political rift in his cabinet and the House, to worsen. Jefferson also pleaded with him not to retire and agreed to drop his attacks on Hamilton, or he would also retire if Washington did.{{sfnm|Ferling|1988|1p=421|Randall|1997|2p=482|Chernow|2010|3pp=675, 678}} Hamilton maintained that Washington's absence would be "deplored as the greatest evil" to the country at this time.{{sfn|Chernow|2005|p=403}} Washington's close nephew George Augustine Washington, his manager at Mount Vernon, was critically ill and had to be replaced, further increasing Washington's desire to retire and return to Mount Vernon.{{sfn|Chernow|2010|p=687}}

When the [[1792 United States presidential election|election of 1792]] neared, Washington did not publicly announce his presidential candidacy. Still, he silently consented to run to prevent a further political-personal rift in his cabinet. The [[United States Electoral College|Electoral College]] unanimously elected him president on February 13, 1793, and [[John Adams]] as vice president by a vote of 77 to 50.{{sfn|Cooke|2002|p=10}} Washington, with nominal fanfare, arrived alone at [[Presidency of George Washington|his inauguration]] in his carriage. Sworn into office by Associate Justice [[William Cushing]] on March 4, 1793, in the Senate Chamber of [[Congress Hall]] in Philadelphia, Washington gave a brief address and then immediately retired to his Philadelphia presidential house, weary of office and in poor health.{{sfnm|Chernow|2010|1p=687|Cooke|2002|2pp=10–11}}
[[File:Constitution1803.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Painting of the frigate USS ''Constitution'' with three masts|[[USS Constitution|USS ''Constitution'']]: Commissioned and named by President Washington in 1794]]

On April 22, 1793, during the [[French Revolution]], Washington issued his famous [[Proclamation of Neutrality|Neutrality Proclamation]] and was resolved to pursue "a conduct friendly and impartial toward the belligerent Powers" while he warned Americans not to intervene in the international conflict. {{sfnm|Ferling|2009|1pp=299, 304, 308–311|Banning|1974|2p=2|Cooke|2002|3pp=11–12}} Although Washington recognized France's revolutionary government, he would eventually ask French minister to America [[Edmond-Charles Genêt|Citizen Genêt]] be recalled over the Citizen Genêt Affair.{{sfn|Cooke|2002|pp=12–13}} Genêt was a diplomatic troublemaker who was openly hostile toward Washington's neutrality policy. He procured four American ships as privateers to strike at Spanish forces (British allies) in [[Florida]] while organizing militias to strike at other British possessions. However, his efforts failed to draw America into the [[French Revolutionary Wars|foreign campaigns]] during Washington's presidency.{{sfnm|Chernow|2010|1p=692|Cooke|2002|2p=12}} On July 31, 1793, Jefferson submitted his resignation from Washington's cabinet.{{sfn|Cooke|2002|p=13}} Washington signed the [[Naval Act of 1794]] and commissioned the first six federal frigates to combat [[Barbary pirates]].{{sfn|Chernow|2010|p=713}}

In January 1795, Hamilton, who desired more income for his family, resigned office and was replaced by Washington appointment [[Oliver Wolcott Jr.|Oliver Wolcott, Jr.]]. Washington and Hamilton remained friends. However, Washington's relationship with his Secretary of War Henry Knox deteriorated. Knox resigned office on the rumor he profited from construction contracts on U.S. Frigates.{{sfnm|Chernow|2010|1pp=726–727|Cooke|2002|2p=15}}

In the final months of his presidency, Washington was assailed by his political foes and a partisan press who accused him of being ambitious and greedy, while he argued that he had taken no salary during the war and had risked his life in battle. He regarded the press as a disuniting, "diabolical" force of falsehoods, sentiments that he expressed in his [[George Washington's Farewell Address|Farewell Address]].{{sfnm|Randall|1997|1pp=491–492|Chernow|2010|2pp=752–754}} At the end of his second term, Washington retired for personal and political reasons, dismayed with personal attacks, and to ensure that a truly contested presidential election could be held. He did not feel bound to a two-term limit, but his retirement set a significant precedent. Washington is often credited with setting the principle of a two-term presidency, but it was Thomas Jefferson who first refused to run for a third term on political grounds.{{sfnm|Korzi|2011|1p=43|Peabody|2001|2pp=439–453}}

=== Farewell Address ===

{{Main|George Washington's Farewell Address}}
[[File:Washington's Farewell Address.jpg|thumb|[[George Washington's Farewell Address|Washington's Farewell Address]] (September 19, 1796)|alt=Newspaper showing Washington's Farewell Address]]

In 1796, Washington declined to run for a third term of office, believing his death in office would create an image of a lifetime appointment. The precedent of a two-term limit was created by his retirement from office.{{sfnm|1a1=Spalding|1a2=Garrity|1y=1996|1p=58|2a1=Lurie|2y=2018}} In May 1792, in anticipation of his retirement, Washington instructed [[James Madison]] to prepare a "[[Valedictorian|valedictory address]]", an initial draft of which was entitled the "Farewell Address".{{sfn|Spalding|Garrity|1996|pp=46–47}} In May 1796, Washington sent the manuscript to his Secretary of Treasury [[Alexander Hamilton]] who did an extensive rewrite, while Washington provided final edits.{{sfnm|Flexner|1972|1p=292|Chernow|2010|2pp=752–753|3a1=Spalding|3a2=Garrity|3y=1996|3p=4744|Hayes|2017|4pp=287–298}} On September 19, 1796, David Claypoole's ''[[Pennsylvania Packet|American Daily Advertiser]]'' published the final version of the address.{{sfnm|Chernow|2010|1p=754|2a1=Lurie|2y=2018}}

Washington stressed that national identity was paramount, while a united America would safeguard freedom and prosperity. He warned the nation of three eminent dangers: regionalism, partisanship, and foreign entanglements, and said the "name of AMERICAN, which belongs to you, in your national capacity, must always exalt the just pride of patriotism, more than any appellation derived from local discriminations."{{sfnm|Chernow|2010|1p=755|2a1=Lurie|2y=2018}} Washington called for men to move beyond partisanship for the common good, stressing that the United States must concentrate on its own interests. He warned against foreign alliances and their influence in domestic affairs, and bitter partisanship and the dangers of political parties.{{sfnm|Randall|1997|1p=492|Boller|1963|2p=47}} He counseled friendship and commerce with all nations, but advised against involvement in European wars.{{sfnm|1a1=Fishman|1a2=Pederson|1a3=Rozell|1y=2001|1pp=119–120|2a1=Gregg|2a2=Spalding|2y=1999|2pp=199–216}} He stressed the importance of religion, asserting that "religion and morality are indispensable supports" in a republic.{{sfn|Chernow|2010|p=133}} Washington's address favored Hamilton's Federalist ideology and economic policies.{{sfnm|Randall|1997|1p=492|Cooke|2002|2pp=18–19|Flexner|1972|3pp=292–297|Avlon|2017|4p=223|Boller|1963|5p=47}}

Washington closed the address by reflecting on his legacy:

{{quote|Though in reviewing the incidents of my Administration I am unconscious of intentional error, I am nevertheless too sensible of my defects not to think it probable that I may have committed many errors. Whatever they may be, I fervently beseech the Almighty to avert or mitigate the evils to which they may tend. I shall also carry with me the hope that my country will never cease to view them with indulgence, and that, after forty-five years of my life dedicated to its service with an upright zeal, the faults of incompetent abilities will be consigned to oblivion, as myself must soon be to the [[John 14|mansions of rest]].{{sfn|Avlon|2017|p=280}}}}

After initial publication, many Republicans, including Madison, criticized the Address and believed it was an anti-French campaign document. Madison believed Washington was strongly pro-British. Madison also was suspicious of who authored the Address.{{sfn|Spalding|Garrity|1996|p=143}}

In 1839, Washington biographer [[Jared Sparks]] maintained that Washington's "...{{nbsp}}Farewell Address was printed and published with the laws, by order of the legislatures, as an evidence of the value they attached to its political precepts, and of their affection for its author."{{sfn|Sparks|1839|p=444}} In 1972, Washington scholar [[James Thomas Flexner|James Flexner]] referred to the Farewell Address as receiving as much acclaim as Thomas Jefferson's [[United States Declaration of Independence|Declaration of Independence]] and [[Abraham Lincoln]]'s [[Gettysburg Address]].{{sfnm|1a1=Flexner|1y=1972|1p=292|2a1=Spalding|2a2=Garrity|2y=1996|2p=142}} In 2010, historian [[Ron Chernow]] reported the ''Farewell Address'' proved to be one of the most influential statements on Republicanism.{{sfn|Chernow|2010|pp=752–754}}

== Retirement (1797–1799) ==

{{see|Post-presidency of George Washington}}

Washington retired to Mount Vernon in March 1797 and devoted time to his plantations and other business interests, including his [[:File:George Washington's Distillery.JPG|distillery]].{{sfn|Breen|White|2006|pp=209–20}} His plantation operations were only minimally profitable,{{sfn|Chernow|2010|p=53}} and his lands in the west ([[Piedmont (United States)|Piedmont]]) were under Indian attacks and yielded little income, with the squatters there refusing to pay rent. He attempted to sell these but without success.{{sfn|Ellis|2004|pp=255–61}} He became an even more committed Federalist. He vocally supported the [[Alien and Sedition Acts]] and convinced Federalist [[John Marshall]] to run for Congress to weaken the Jeffersonian hold on [[Virginia]].{{sfn|Flexner|1974|p=386}}

Washington grew restless in retirement, prompted by tensions with France, and he wrote to Secretary of War [[James McHenry]] offering to organize President Adams' army.{{sfn|Randall|1997|p=497}} In a continuation of the [[French Revolutionary Wars]], French privateers began seizing American ships in 1798, and relations deteriorated with France and led to the "[[Quasi-War]]". Without consulting Washington, Adams nominated him for a lieutenant general commission on July 4, 1798, and the position of commander-in-chief of the armies.{{sfnm|Flexner|1974|1pp=376–377|Bell|1992|2p=64}} Washington chose to accept, replacing [[James Wilkinson]],{{sfn|Bell|1992|p=64}} and he served as the commanding general from July 13, 1798, until his death 17 months later. He participated in planning for a provisional army, but he avoided involvement in details. In advising McHenry of potential officers for the army, he appeared to make a complete break with Jefferson's Democratic-Republicans: "you could as soon scrub the blackamoor white, as to change the principles of a profest Democrat; and that he will leave nothing unattempted to overturn the government of this country."{{sfn|Fitzpatrick|1936|loc=vol. 36|p=474}} Washington delegated the active leadership of the army to Hamilton, a major general. No army invaded the United States during this period, and Washington did not assume a field command.{{sfnm|Kohn|1975|1pp=225–42|Grizzard|2005|2p=264}}

Washington was known to be rich because of the well-known "glorified façade of wealth and grandeur" at Mount Vernon,{{sfn|Chernow|2010|p=708}} but nearly all his wealth was in the form of land and slaves rather than ready cash. To supplement his income, he erected a [[:File:George Washington's Distillery.JPG|distillery]] for substantial whiskey production.{{sfnm|Hirschfeld|1997|1pp=44–45|Ferling|2009|2p=351}} Historians estimate that the estate was worth about $1{{nbsp}}million in 1799 dollars,{{sfnm|1a1= Dalzell|1a2=Dalzell|1y=1998|1p=219}} {{Inflation|US|1000000|1800|fmt=eq|r=-3}}. He bought land parcels to spur development around the new [[Washington, D.C.|Federal City]] named in his honor, and he sold individual lots to middle-income investors rather than multiple lots to large investors, believing they would more likely commit to making improvements.{{sfn|Chernow|2010|pp=704–705}}

=== Final days and death ===

<!-- linked from redirect "Death of George Washington" -->
[[File:Life of George Washington, Deathbed.jpg|left|thumb|alt=Washington on his deathbed, with doctors and family surrounding|''Washington on his Deathbed''<br />[[Junius Brutus Stearns]] 1799]]

On December 12, 1799, Washington inspected his farms on horseback. He returned home late and had guests over for dinner. He had a sore throat the next day but was well enough to mark trees for cutting. That evening, he complained of chest congestion but was still cheerful.{{sfn|"The Death of George Washington"}} On Saturday, he awoke to an inflamed throat and difficulty breathing, so he ordered estate overseer George Rawlins to [[bloodletting|remove nearly a pint of his blood]], bloodletting being a common practice of the time. His family summoned Doctors [[James Craik]], [[Gustavus Richard Brown]], and [[Elisha C. Dick]].{{sfnm|Chernow|2010|1pp=806–10|Morens|1999|2pp=1845–1849}} ([[William Thornton|Dr. William Thornton]] arrived some hours after Washington died.){{sfn|"Death Defied"}}

Dr. Brown thought Washington had [[Peritonsillar abscess|quinsy]]; Dr. Dick thought the condition was a more serious "violent inflammation of the throat".{{sfnm|Chernow|2010|1pp=806–807|Lear|1799|2p=257}} They continued the process of bloodletting to approximately five pints, and Washington's condition deteriorated further. Dr. Dick proposed a [[tracheotomy]], but the others were not familiar with that procedure and therefore disapproved.{{sfnm|1a1=Chernow|1y=2010|1pp=806–10|2a1=Felisati|2a2=Sperati|2y=2005|2pp=55–58}} Washington instructed Brown and Dick to leave the room, while he assured Craik, "Doctor, I die hard, but I am not afraid to go."{{sfn|Ellis|2004|p=269}}

Washington's death came more swiftly than expected.{{sfn|Ferling|2009|p=365}} On his deathbed, he instructed his private secretary [[Tobias Lear]] to wait three days before his burial, out of fear of being entombed alive.{{sfn|Chernow|2010|p=808}} According to Lear, he died peacefully between 10 and 11 p.m. on December 14, 1799, with Martha seated at the foot of his bed. His last words were "'Tis well", from his conversation with Lear about his burial. He was 67.{{sfnm|Flexner|1974|1pp=401–402|Chernow|2010|2pp=808–809}}
[[File:GeorgeWashingtonByRobertField.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Portrait miniature|Miniature]] of George Washington by [[Robert Field (painter)|Robert Field]] (1800)]]

Congress immediately adjourned for the day upon news of Washington's death, and the Speaker's chair was shrouded in black the next morning.{{sfn|Irving|1857|p=359}} The funeral was held four days after his death on December 18, 1799, at Mount Vernon, where his body was interred. Cavalry and foot soldiers led the procession, and six colonels served as the pallbearers. The Mount Vernon funeral service was restricted mostly to family and friends.{{sfn|Chernow|2010|pp=808–810}} Reverend Thomas Davis read the funeral service by the vault with a brief address, followed by a ceremony performed by various members of Washington's Masonic lodge in [[Alexandria, Virginia]].{{sfn|Irving|1857|pp=374–375}} Congress chose [[Henry Lee III|Light-Horse Harry Lee]] to deliver the eulogy. Word of his death traveled slowly; church bells rang in the cities, and many places of business closed.{{sfn|Chernow|2010|pp=810–811}} People worldwide admired Washington and were saddened by his death, and memorial processions were held in major cities of the United States. Martha wore a black mourning cape for one year, and she burned their correspondence to protect their privacy. Only five letters between the couple are known to have survived: two from Martha to George and three from him to her.{{sfn|Chernow|2010|p=814}}

The diagnosis of Washington's illness and the immediate cause of his death have been subjects of debate since the day he died. The published account of Drs. Craik and Brown{{efn|The first account of Washington's death was written by Doctors Craik and Brown, published in ''The Times'' of Alexandria five days after his death on December 19, 1799. The complete text can be found in ''The Eclectic Medical Journal'' (1858){{sfnm|1a1=Newton|1a2=Freeman|1a3=Bickley|1y=1858|1pp=273–274}}}} stated that his symptoms had been consistent with ''cynanche trachealis'' (tracheal inflammation), a term of that period used to describe severe inflammation of the upper windpipe, including quinsy. Accusations have persisted since Washington's death concerning medical malpractice, with some believing he had been bled to death.{{sfnm|Chernow|2010|1pp=806–10|2a1=Felisati|2a2=Sperati|2y=2005|2pp=55–58}} Various modern medical authors have speculated that he died from a severe case of [[epiglottitis]] complicated by the given treatments, most notably the massive blood loss which almost certainly caused [[hypovolemia|hypovolemic shock]].{{sfn|Chernow|2010|p=809}}{{efn|Modern experts have concluded that Washington probably died from acute bacterial epiglottitis complicated by the administered treatments, including Morens and Wallenborn in 1999,{{sfnm|Wallenborn|1999|Morens|1999|2pp=1845–1849}} Cheatham in 2008, {{sfn|Cheatham|2008}} and Vadakan in 2005.{{sfn|Vadakan|2005}} These treatments included multiple doses of [[Mercury(I) chloride|calomel]] (a cathartic or purgative) and extensive bloodletting.}}

== Burial, net worth, and aftermath ==

[[File:Washington Tomb.jpg|thumb|alt=A picture of the two sarcophagi of George (at right) and Martha Washington at the present tomb at Mount Vernon.|The sarcophagi of George (right) and Martha Washington at the present tomb's entrance]]

Washington was buried in the old Washington family vault at Mount Vernon, situated on a grassy slope overspread with willow, juniper, cypress, and chestnut trees. It contained the remains of his brother Lawrence and other family members, but the decrepit brick vault needed repair, prompting Washington to leave instructions in his will for the construction of a new vault.{{sfn|Chernow|2010|pp=810–811}} Washington's estate at the time of his death was worth an estimated $780,000 in 1799, approximately equivalent to $17.82{{nbsp}}million in 2021.{{sfn|Gardner|2013}} Washington's peak net worth was $587.0&nbsp;million, including his 300 slaves.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://247wallst.com/special-report/2019/02/26/the-net-worth-of-the-american-presidents-washington-to-trump-2/|title=The Net Worth of the American Presidents: Washington to Trump|date=November 10, 2016|work=24/7 Wall St.|access-date=June 11, 2020|publisher=247wallst.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190410142809/https://247wallst.com/special-report/2019/02/26/the-net-worth-of-the-american-presidents-washington-to-trump-2/|archive-date=April 10, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> Washington held title to more than 65,000 acres of land in 37 different locations.<ref name="Lehrman Institute (June 22, 2021)" />

In 1830, a disgruntled ex-employee of the estate [[Attempted theft of George Washington's skull|attempted to steal]] what he thought was Washington's skull, prompting the construction of a more secure vault.{{sfn|Craughwell|2009|pp=77–79}} The next year, the new vault was constructed at Mount Vernon to receive the remains of George and Martha and other relatives.{{sfn|"Mount Vernon Ladies' Association, New Tomb"}} In 1832, a joint Congressional committee debated moving his body from Mount Vernon to a crypt in the Capitol. The crypt had been built by architect [[Charles Bulfinch]] in the 1820s during the reconstruction of the burned-out capital, after the [[Burning of Washington]] by the British during the [[War of 1812]]. Southern opposition was intense, antagonized by an ever-growing rift between North and South; many were concerned that Washington's remains could end up on "a shore foreign to his native soil" if the country became divided, and Washington's remains stayed in Mount Vernon.{{sfn|Boorstin|2010|pp=349–50}}

On October 7, 1837, Washington's remains were placed, still in the original lead coffin, within a marble sarcophagus designed by [[William Strickland (architect)|William Strickland]] and constructed by John Struthers earlier that year.{{sfnm|Strickland|1840|1pp=11–14|Carlson|2016|2loc=chapter 1}} The sarcophagus was sealed and encased with planks, and an outer vault was constructed around it.{{sfn|Strickland|1840|pp=11–14}} The outer vault has the sarcophagi of both George and Martha Washington; the inner vault has the remains of other Washington family members and relatives.{{sfn|"Mount Vernon Ladies' Association, New Tomb"}}

== Personal life ==

[[File:Edward Savage - The Washington Family - Google Art ProjectFXD.jpg|thumb|''[[The Washington Family]]'' by [[Edward Savage (artist)|Edward Savage]] (c. 1789–1796) George and Martha Washington with her grandchildren. [[National Art Gallery]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nga.gov/collection/art-object-page.561.html|title=The Washington Family|website=www.nga.gov}}</ref>]]
[[File:George Washington’s bookplate. Sotheby's.jpg|thumb|George Washington's bookplate with the [[Coat of arms of the Washington family]]]]
Washington was somewhat reserved in personality, but he generally had a strong presence among others. He made speeches and announcements when required, but he was not a noted orator or debater.{{sfnm|Ferling|2002|1p=16|Randall|1997|2pp=34, 436|Chernow|2010|3pp=29–30}} He was taller than most of his contemporaries;{{sfn|Ferling|2002|p=16}} accounts of his height vary from {{convert|6|ft|m|2|abbr=on}} to {{convert|6|ft|3.5|in|m|2|abbr=on}} tall,<ref>Various sources have put Washington's height between 6 ft and 6 ft 3.5 in. See: Chernow, Ron, ''[[Washington: A Life]]'', 2010, The Penguin Press HC {{ISBN|1-59420-266-4}}; Wilson, Woodrow, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=3yxfh1z80V0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=george+washington&hl=en&ei=xxAgTYfuNYT0vQPD6vzgDQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDwQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false George Washington]'', 2004, Cosimo, Inc., p. 111; Alden, John Richard, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=sz3zHVWfocwC&printsec=frontcover&dq=george+washington+biography&hl=en&ei=-REgTbu4Io6muAOTqMX-BQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false George Washington: A Biography]'', 1984, Louisiana State University Press, p. 11; Lodge, Henry Cabot, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=m1qToHc-H_oC&printsec=frontcover&dq=george+washington&hl=en&ei=exIgTa-eAYHUvQPzjNnTDQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=book-preview-link&resnum=6&ved=0CFAQuwUwBQ#v=onepage&q&f=false George Washington, Vol. I]'', 2007, The Echo Library, p. 30; Haworth, Paul Leland, ''George Washington'', Kessinger Publishing, 2004, p. 119; Thayer, William Roscoe, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=fMcAPyEYevAC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false George Washington]'', 1931, Plain Label Books, p. 65; Ford, Paul Leicester, ''[https://books.google.com.bd/books?id=rMfxDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA18&lpg=PA18#v=onepage&q&f=false The True George Washington]'', Philadelphia, J.B. Lippincott Company, 1896, p. 18-19</ref><ref>[https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/02-08-02-0073 From George Washington to Charles Lawrence, 20 June 1768], ''founders.archives.gov''</ref> he weighed between {{convert|210–220|lb|kg|0}} as an adult,{{sfnm|Ferling|2002|1p=16|Chernow|2010|2pp=29–30}}<ref>Ford, Paul Leicester, ''[https://books.google.com.bd/books?id=rMfxDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA18&lpg=PA18#v=onepage&q&f=false The True George Washington]'', Philadelphia, J.B. Lippincott Company, 1896, p. 18-19</ref> and he was known for his great strength.{{sfn|Chernow|2010|pp=123–125}} He had grey-blue eyes and reddish-brown hair which he wore powdered in the fashion of the day.{{sfn|Chernow|2010|p=30}} He had a rugged and dominating presence, which garnered respect from his peers.

He bought [[William Lee (valet)|William Lee]] on May 27, 1768, and he was Washington's valet for 20 years. He was the only slave freed immediately in Washington's will.

Washington frequently suffered from severe tooth decay and ultimately lost all [[George Washington's teeth|his teeth]] but one. He had several sets of false teeth made, which he wore during his presidency—none of which was made of wood, contrary to common lore.<ref>{{Cite web|date=July 1, 2016|others=Researched by Thomas DeMichele|title=George Washington Had Wooden Teeth – Fact or Myth?|url=http://factmyth.com/factoids/george-washington-had-wooden-teeth/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170404002941/http://factmyth.com/factoids/george-washington-had-wooden-teeth/|archive-date=April 4, 2017|access-date=April 4, 2021|website=Fact / Myth|language=en-US}}</ref> These dental problems left him in constant pain, for which he took [[laudanum]].{{sfn|Chernow|2010|pp=30, 290, 437–439, 642–643}} As a public figure, he relied upon the strict confidence of his dentist.{{sfn|Chernow|2010|pp=642–643}}

Washington was a talented equestrian early in life. He collected thoroughbreds at Mount Vernon, and his two favorite horses were [[Blueskin (horse)|Blueskin]] and [[Nelson (horse)|Nelson]].{{sfn|Chernow|2010|pp=124, 469}} Fellow Virginian [[Thomas Jefferson]] said Washington was "the best horseman of his age and the most graceful figure that could be seen on horseback";{{sfn|Chernow|2010|p=124}} he also hunted foxes, deer, ducks, and other game.{{sfn|Chernow|2010|p=469}} He was an excellent dancer and attended the theater frequently. He drank in moderation but was morally opposed to excessive drinking, smoking tobacco, gambling, and profanity.{{sfn|Chernow|2010|p=134}}

=== Religion and Freemasonry ===

{{Main|Religious views of George Washington|American Enlightenment}}

Washington was descended from Anglican minister [[Lawrence Washington (1602–1652)|Lawrence Washington]] (his great-great-grandfather), whose troubles with the [[Church of England]] may have prompted his heirs to emigrate to America.{{sfn|Tsakiridis|2018}} Washington was baptized as an infant in April 1732 and became a devoted member of the Church of England (the Anglican Church).{{sfnm|Chernow|2010|1p=6|Morrison|2009|2p=136|Alden|1996|3pp=2, 26|Randall|1997|4p=17|Tsakiridis|2018}} He served more than 20 years as a [[vestryman]] and churchwarden for [[Fairfax Parish, Virginia|Fairfax Parish]] and [[Truro Parish, Virginia]].{{sfnm|Chernow|2010|1p=130|Thompson|2008|2p=40|Tsakiridis|2018}} He privately prayed and read the Bible daily, and he publicly encouraged people and the nation to pray.{{sfnm|Frazer|2012|1pp=198–199|Chernow|2010|2pp=119, 132|Tsakiridis|2018}} He may have taken communion on a regular basis prior to the Revolutionary War, but he did not do so following the war, for which he was admonished by Pastor [[James Abercrombie (Episcopal priest)|James Abercrombie]].{{sfnm|Chernow|2010|1pp=131, 470|Johnstone|1919|2pp=87–195|Frazer|2012|3pp=201–203|Tsakiridis|2018}}
[[File:Washington Masonic print.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Washington is shown presiding as Master Mason over a lodge meeting.|George Washington as Master of his Lodge, 1793]]

Washington believed in a "wise, inscrutable, and irresistible" Creator God who was active in the Universe, contrary to [[deism|deistic thought]].{{sfn|Tsakiridis|2018}} He referred to God by the Enlightenment terms ''[[divine providence|Providence]]'', the ''Creator'', or the ''Almighty'', and also as the ''Divine Author'' or the ''Supreme Being''.{{sfnm|Randall|1997|1p=67|Tsakiridis|2018}} He believed in a divine power who watched over battlefields, was involved in the outcome of war, was protecting his life, and was involved in American politics—and specifically in the creation of the United States.{{sfnm|Chernow|2010|1p=131|Tsakiridis|2018}}{{efn|The Constitution came under attack in Pennsylvania, and Washington wrote to Richard Peters, "It would seem from the public Gazettes that the minority in your State are preparing for another attack of the now adopted Government; how formidable it may be, I know not. But that Providence which has hitherto smiled on the honest endeavours of the well meaning part of the People of this Country will not, I trust, withdraw its support from them at this crisis."{{sfn|Washington|1788b}}}} Modern historian [[Ron Chernow]] has posited that Washington avoided evangelistic Christianity or hellfire-and-brimstone speech along with communion and anything inclined to "flaunt his religiosity". Chernow has also said Washington "never used his religion as a device for partisan purposes or in official undertakings".{{sfn|Chernow|2010|pp=131–132}} No mention of [[Jesus]] Christ appears in [[The Washington Papers|his private correspondence]], and such references are rare in his public writings.{{sfnm|Novak|2007|1p=95|Tsakiridis|2018}} He frequently quoted from the Bible or paraphrased it, and often referred to the Anglican ''[[Book of Common Prayer]]''.{{sfnm|Chernow|2010|1pp=131–132|Morrison|2009|2p=136|Tsakiridis|2018}} There is debate on whether he is best classed as a Christian or a [[theistic rationalism|theistic rationalist]]—or both.{{sfnm|Frazer|2012|1pp=197–198, 201–203|Novak|2007|2pp=158–161}}

Washington emphasized religious toleration in a nation with numerous denominations and religions. He publicly attended services of different Christian denominations and prohibited anti-Catholic celebrations in the Army.{{sfn|Boller|1963|p=125}} He engaged workers at Mount Vernon without regard for religious belief or affiliation. While president, he acknowledged major religious sects and gave speeches on religious toleration.{{sfn|Chernow|2010|p=131}} He was distinctly rooted in the ideas, values, and modes of thinking of the Enlightenment,{{sfn|Wood|2001|p=313}} but he harbored no contempt of organized Christianity and its clergy, "being no bigot myself to any mode of worship".{{sfn|Wood|2001|p=313}} In 1793, speaking to members of the [[The New Church (Swedenborgian)|New Church]] in Baltimore, Washington proclaimed, "We have abundant reason to rejoice that in this Land the light of truth and reason has triumphed over the power of bigotry and superstition."{{sfn|Novak|2007|p=117, n. 52}}

[[Freemasonry]] was a widely accepted institution in the late 18th century, known for advocating moral teachings.{{sfnm|Chernow|2010|1pp=132, 500|Morrison|2009|2p=136|Stavish|2007|3pp=XIX, XXI|Immekus|2018}} Washington was attracted to the Masons' dedication to the Enlightenment principles of rationality, reason, and brotherhood. The American Masonic lodges did not share the anti-clerical perspective of the [[anticlericalism and Freemasonry|controversial European lodges]].{{sfn|Chernow|2010|pp=27, 704}} A Masonic lodge was established in Fredericksburg in September 1752, and Washington was initiated two months later at the age of 20 as one of its first Entered Apprentices. Within a year, he progressed through its ranks to become a Master Mason.{{sfnm|Randall|1997|1p=67|Chernow|2010|2p=27}} Washington had high regard for the Masonic Order, but his personal lodge attendance was sporadic. In 1777, a convention of Virginia lodges asked him to be the Grand Master of the newly established [[Grand Lodge of Virginia]], but he declined due to his commitments leading the Continental Army. After 1782, he frequently corresponded with Masonic lodges and members,{{sfn|Immekus|2018}} and he was listed as Master in the Virginia charter of [[George Washington Masonic National Memorial|Alexandria Lodge No. 22]] in 1788.{{sfn|"A Brief History" (GWMNMA)}}
{{clear}}

== Slavery ==

{{Main|George Washington and slavery|Slavery in the colonial United States|Slavery in the United States}}
[[File:Junius Brutus Stearns - George Washington as Farmer at Mount Vernon.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|alt=Washington the farmer is shown standing on his plantation talking to an overseer as children play and slaves work. Work is by Junius Stearns.|''Washington as Farmer at Mount Vernon''<br />[[Junius Brutus Stearns]], 1851]]

In Washington's lifetime, during the age of [[aristrocracy]], slavery was deeply ingrained in the economic and social fabric of Virginia, and the British Empire.{{sfn|Henriques|2006|p=146}}{{sfn|Willcox|Arnstein|1988|pp=41-42}} Slavery was protected by law in all of the 13 colonies up until the American Revolutionary War.<ref name="Maloy (April 6, 2021)">{{cite web|last=Maloy |first=Mark |title=The Founding Fathers Views of Slavery |url=https://www.battlefields.org/learn/articles/founding-fathers-views-slavery |date=April 6, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210406184636/https://www.battlefields.org/learn/articles/founding-fathers-views-slavery |access-date=July 3, 2021|archive-date=April 6, 2021|url-status=live }}</ref>

Washington owned and worked [[African Americans|African]] [[Slavery in the United States|slaves]], and during his lifetime over 577 slaves worked Mount Vernon.<ref name="Mount Vernon Slaves">{{cite web |title=The Growth of Mount Vernon's Enslaved Community |url=https://www.mountvernon.org/george-washington/slavery/the-growth-of-mount-vernons-enslaved-community/ |website=MountVernon.org |publisher=Mount Vernon Ladies' Association |access-date=July 12, 2021 |quote=Over the course of George Washington's life, at least 577 enslaved people lived and worked at Mount Vernon.}}</ref>{{sfnm|Morgan|2000|1p=279|Ellis|2004|2p=45}} He acquired them through inheritance, gained control of eighty-four [[Dowry|dower]] slaves on his marriage to Martha, and purchased at least seventy-one slaves between 1752 and 1773.{{sfnm|Morgan|2000|1pp=279–280|Morgan|2005|2pp=405, 407 n7|Hirschfeld|1997|3p=12}} His early views on slavery were no different from any Virginia [[Planter class|planter]] of the time.{{sfn|Twohig|2001|p=116}} He demonstrated no moral qualms about the institution and referred to his slaves as "a Species of Property".{{sfn|Ellis|2004|p=45}} From the 1760s his attitudes underwent a slow evolution. The first doubts were prompted by his transition from tobacco to grain crops, which left him with a costly surplus of slaves, causing him to question the system's economic efficiency.{{sfn|Morgan|2005|p=413}} His growing disillusionment with the institution was spurred by the principles of the American Revolution and revolutionary friends such as Lafayette and Hamilton.{{sfnm|Twohig|2001|1p=121|Morgan|2005|2p=426}} Most historians agree the Revolution was central to the evolution of Washington's attitudes on slavery;{{sfn|Furstenberg|2011|p=260}} "After 1783", Kenneth Morgan writes, "...[Washington] began to express inner tensions about the problem of slavery more frequently, though always in private..."{{sfn|Morgan|2000|p=299}}

The many contemporary reports of slave treatment at Mount Vernon are varied and conflicting.{{sfn|Wiencek|2003|p=348}} Historian Kenneth Morgan (''2000'') maintains that Washington was frugal on spending for clothes and bedding for his slaves, and only provided them with just enough food, and that he maintained strict control over his slaves, instructing his overseers to keep them working hard from dawn to dusk year-round. {{sfn|Morgan|2000|pp=286–287}} However, historian Dorothy Twohig (2001) said: "Food, clothing, and housing seem to have been at least adequate".{{sfn|Twohig|2001}} Washington faced growing debts involved with the costs of supporting slaves. He held an "engrained sense of racial superiority" over African Americans but harbored no ill feelings toward them.{{sfn|Morgan|2000|pp=283, 285, 286}}

Some slave families worked at different locations on the plantation but were allowed to visit one another on their days off.{{sfnm|Morgan|2000|1pp=282, 283–285|Chernow|2010|2pp=112–113}} Washington's slaves received two hours off for meals during the workday and were given time off on Sundays and religious holidays.{{sfnm|Chernow|2010|1p=111|Ferling|2002|2p=46|Schwarz|2001|3pp=27, 83|Slave Labor (Mount Vernon Ladies' Association Essay)}} In May 1796, Martha's personal and favorite slave [[Oney Judge|Ona Judge]] escaped to [[Portsmouth, New Hampshire|Portsmouth]]. At Martha's behest, Washington attempted to capture Ona, using a Treasury agent, but this effort failed. In February 1797, Washington's personal slave [[Hercules Posey|Hercules]] escaped to Philadelphia and was never found.{{sfn|Chernow|2010|pp=759–763}}

Some accounts report that Washington opposed flogging but at times sanctioned its use, generally as a last resort, on both men and women slaves.{{sfnm|Hirschfeld|1997|1p=36|Slave Control (Mount Vernon Ladies' Association Essay)}} Washington used both reward and punishment to encourage discipline and productivity in his slaves. He tried appealing to an individual's sense of pride, gave better blankets and clothing to the "most deserving", and motivated his slaves with cash rewards. He believed "watchfulness and admonition" to be often better deterrents against transgressions but would punish those who "will not do their duty by fair means". Punishment ranged in severity from demotion back to fieldwork, through whipping and beatings, to permanent separation from friends and family by sale. Historian Ron Chernow maintains that overseers were required to warn slaves before resorting to the lash and required Washington's written permission before whipping, though his extended absences did not always permit this.{{sfn|Chernow|2010|pp=113–114}} Washington remained dependent on slave labor to work his farms and negotiated the purchase of more slaves in 1786 and 1787.{{sfnm|Twohig|2001|1pp=122–123|Morgan|2000|2pp=283, 289}}

Washington brought several of his slaves with him and his family to the federal capital during his presidency. When the capital moved from New York City to Philadelphia in 1791, the president began rotating the slave staff periodically between the capital and Mount Vernon. This was done to circumvent Pennsylvania's [[An Act for the Gradual Abolition of Slavery|Slavery Abolition Act]], which, in part, automatically freed any slave who moved to the state and lived there for more than six months.<ref>{{Cite magazine|title=George Washington Used Legal Loopholes to Avoid Freeing His Slaves|last=Blakemore|first=Erin|date=February 16, 2015|magazine=[[Smithsonian (magazine)|Smithsonian]]|url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/george-washington-used-legal-loopholes-avoid-freeing-his-slaves-180954283/|access-date=July 21, 2021}}</ref>

In February 1786, Washington took a census of Mount Vernon and recorded 224 slaves.{{sfn|Morgan|2000|pp=279–287}} By 1799, slaves at Mount Vernon totaled 317, including 143 children.{{sfn|Morgan|2000|pp=281–282}} Washington owned 124 slaves, leased 40, and held 153 for his wife's dower interest.{{sfnm|Morgan|2000|1p=298|"Ten Facts About Washington & Slavery"}} Washington supported many slaves who were too young or too old to work, greatly increasing Mount Vernon's slave population and causing the plantation to operate at a loss.{{sfnm|Wiencek|2003|1pp=319, 348–349|Flexner|1974|2p=386|Hirschfeld|1997|3p=2|Ellis|2004|4p=167|Morgan|2000|5p=283}}

=== Abolition and manumission ===

{{Main|George Washington and slavery|Abolitionism in the United States}}

Based on his letters, diary, documents, accounts from colleagues, employees, friends, and visitors, Washington slowly developed a cautious sympathy toward abolitionism that eventually ended with the [[manumission]], by his will, of his own slaves after his death.{{sfnm|Hirschfeld|1997|1p=3|Morgan|2000|2p=29}} As president, he kept publicly silent on slavery, believing it was a nationally divisive issue that could destroy the union.{{sfnm|Ellis|2004|1p=202|Twohig|2001}}

During the American Revolutionary War, Washington began to change his views on slavery.<ref name="Maloy (April 6, 2021)" /> In a 1778 letter to [[Lund Washington]], he made clear his desire "to get quit of Negroes" when discussing the exchange of slaves for the land he wanted to buy.{{sfn|Morgan|2005|pp=416–417}} The next year, he stated his intention not to separate families as a result of "a change of masters".{{sfn|Morgan|2005|p=417}} During the 1780s, Washington privately expressed his support for the gradual emancipation of slaves.{{sfn|Ellis|2004|p=201}} Between 1783 and 1786, he gave moral support to a plan proposed by Lafayette to purchase land and free slaves to work on it, but declined to participate in the experiment.{{sfn|Twohig|2001}} Washington privately expressed support for emancipation to prominent Methodists [[Thomas Coke (bishop)|Thomas Coke]] and [[Francis Asbury]] in 1785 but declined to sign their petition.{{sfn|Morgan|2000|p=292}} In personal correspondence the next year, he made clear his desire to see the institution of slavery ended by a gradual legislative process, a view that correlated with the mainstream antislavery literature published in the 1780s that Washington possessed.{{sfnm|Morgan|2005|1pp=418–419|Furstenberg|2011|2pp=273–274, 284–285}} He significantly reduced his purchases of slaves after the war but continued to acquire them in small numbers.{{sfnm|Twohig|2001|1pp=122–123|Morgan|2005|2p=419|Morgan|2000|3p=289}}
[[File:Tobias Lear.jpg|left|upright=0.8|thumb|In 1794, Washington privately expressed to [[Tobias Lear]], his secretary, that he found slavery to be repugnant.]]

In 1788, Washington declined a suggestion from a leading French abolitionist, [[Jacques Pierre Brissot|Jacques Brissot]], to establish an abolitionist society in Virginia, stating that although he supported the idea, the time was not yet right to confront the issue.{{sfn|Furstenberg|2011|p=280}} The historian [[Henry Wiencek]] (2003) believes, based on a remark that appears in the notebook of his biographer [[David Humphreys (soldier)|David Humphreys]], that Washington considered making a public statement by freeing his slaves on the eve of his presidency in 1789.{{sfn|Wiencek|2003|pp=272–275}} The historian [[Philip D. Morgan]] (2005) disagrees, believing the remark was a "private expression of remorse" at his inability to free his slaves.{{sfn|Morgan|2005|pp=422–423}} Other historians agree with Morgan that Washington was determined not to risk national unity over an issue as divisive as slavery.{{sfnm|Twohig|2001|1pp=126–127|Morgan|2000|2pp=290, 299|Ellis|2004|3p=202}} Washington never responded to any of the antislavery petitions he received, and the subject was not mentioned in either his last address to Congress or his Farewell Address.{{sfnm|Twohig|2001|1pp=126–127|Morgan|2000|2pp=297|Ferling|2009|3p=363}}

The first clear indication that Washington seriously intended to free his slaves appears in a letter written to his secretary, [[Tobias Lear]], in 1794.{{sfn|Ellis|2004|p=257}} Washington instructed Lear to find buyers for his land in western Virginia, explaining in a private coda that he was doing so "to liberate a certain species of property which I possess, very repugnantly to my own feelings".{{sfn|Wiencek|2003|p=274}} The plan, along with others Washington considered in 1795 and 1796, could not be realized because he failed to find buyers for his land, his reluctance to break up slave families, and the refusal of the Custis heirs to help prevent such separations by freeing their dower slaves at the same time.{{sfn|Morgan|2005|pp=423–424}}

On July 9, 1799, Washington finished making his last will; the longest provision concerned slavery. All his slaves were to be freed after the death of his wife, Martha. Washington said he did not free them immediately because his slaves intermarried with his wife's dower slaves. He forbade their sale or transportation out of Virginia. His will provided that old and young freed people be taken care of indefinitely; younger ones were to be taught to read and write and placed in suitable occupations.{{sfn|Morgan|2005|p=404}} Washington freed more than 160 slaves, including 25 he had acquired from his wife's brother in payment of a debt freed by graduation.{{sfn|Morgan|2005|pp=404–405}} He was among the few large slave-holding Virginians during the Revolutionary Era who emancipated their slaves.{{sfn|Wiencek|2003|pp=352–354}}

On January 1, 1801, one year after George Washington's death, Martha Washington signed an order to free his slaves. Many of them, having never strayed far from Mount Vernon, were naturally reluctant to try their luck elsewhere; others refused to abandon spouses or children still held as dower slaves (the Custis estate){{sfn|Chernow|2010|p=802}} and also stayed with or near Martha. Following George Washington's instructions in his will, funds were used to feed and clothe the young, aged, and sickly slaves until the early 1830s.{{sfn|Chernow|2010|p=815}}

== Historical reputation and legacy ==

{{further|Legacy of George Washington|Cultural depictions of George Washington|Historical rankings of presidents of the United States}}
[[File:Stuart-george-washington-constable-1797.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|alt=portrait of Washington seated facing left by Gilbert Stuart|''Washington, the Constable'' by [[Gilbert Stuart]] (1797)]]

Washington's legacy endures as one of the most influential in American history since he served as commander-in-chief of the [[Continental Army]], a hero of the [[American Revolution|Revolution]], and the first [[president of the United States]]. Various historians maintain that he also was a dominant factor in America's founding, the [[American Revolutionary War|Revolutionary War]], and the [[Constitutional Convention (United States)|Constitutional Convention]].{{sfn|Ferling|2009|p=xviii}} [[American Revolutionary War|Revolutionary War]] comrade [[Henry Lee III|Light-Horse Harry Lee]] [[s:The Father of His Country|eulogized him]] as "First in war—first in peace—and first in the hearts of his countrymen".{{sfn|Ferling|2009|pp=3–4}} Lee's words became the hallmark by which Washington's reputation was impressed upon the American memory, with some biographers regarding him as the great exemplar of republicanism. He set many precedents for the national government and the presidency in particular, and he was called the "Father of His Country" as early as 1778.{{sfnm|1a1=Unger|1y=2013|1pp=236–37|2a1=Parry|2a2=Allison|2y=1991|2p=xi|Hindle|2017|3p=92}}{{efn|The earliest known ''image'' in which Washington is identified as the Father of His Country is in the frontispiece of a 1779 German-language almanac, with calculations by [[David Rittenhouse]] and published by Francis Bailey in Lancaster County Pennsylvania. ''Der Gantz Neue Verbesserte Nord-Americanische Calendar'' has a personification of Fame holding a trumpet to her lips juxtaposed with an image of Washington and the words "''Der Landes Vater''" ("the father of the country" or "the father of the land").{{sfn|Lightner|Reeder|1953|p=133}}}}

In 1885, Congress proclaimed Washington's birthday to be a federal holiday.{{sfn|Ferling|2009|p=4}} Twentieth-century biographer [[Douglas Southall Freeman]] concluded, "The great big thing stamped across that man is character." Modern historian [[David Hackett Fischer]] has expanded upon Freeman's assessment, defining Washington's character as "integrity, self-discipline, courage, absolute honesty, resolve, and decision, but also forbearance, decency, and respect for others".{{sfn|Fischer|2004|p=446}}
[[File:George Washington battling a tiger.jpg|thumb|A drawing from a Japanese manuscript of Washington fighting a tiger.]]
Washington became an international symbol for liberation and nationalism as the leader of the first successful revolution against a colonial empire. The [[Federalist Party|Federalists]] made him the symbol of their party, but the [[Democratic-Republican Party|Jeffersonians]] continued to distrust his influence for many years and delayed building the [[Washington Monument]].{{sfn|Cunliffe|1958|pp=24–26}} Washington was elected a member of the [[American Academy of Arts and Sciences]] on January 31, 1781, before he had even begun his presidency.{{sfn|Willard|2017}} He was posthumously appointed to the grade of General of the Armies of the United States during the [[United States Bicentennial]] to ensure he would never be outranked; this was accomplished by the congressional joint resolution [[s:Public Law 94-479|Public Law 94-479]] passed on January 19, 1976, with an effective appointment date of July 4, 1976.{{sfn|Bell|1992|pp=52, 66}}{{efn|In ''Portraits & Biographical Sketches of the United States Army's Senior Officer'',{{sfn|Bell|1992|p=52}} William Gardner Bell states that Washington was recalled to military service from his retirement in 1798, and "Congress passed legislation that would have made him General of the Armies of the United States, but his services were not required in the field, and the appointment was not made until the Bicentennial in 1976 when it was bestowed posthumously as a commemorative honor." In 1976, President [[Gerald Ford]] specified that Washington would "rank first among all officers of the Army, past and present".{{sfn|"Five-star Generals"|2017}}}} On March 13, 1978, Washington was militarily promoted to the rank of [[General of the Armies of the United States|General of the Armies]].<ref name=Army_1978>{{cite magazine
|title=Washington is Now No. 1: The Story Behind a Promotion
|first=Brooks E. |last=Kleber
|magazine=Army
|date=June 1978
|pages=14–15
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZCxEAQAAIAAJ&pg=RA3-PA14
}}</ref>

{{anchor|Cherry tree}}[[Mason Locke Weems|Parson Weems]] wrote a [[Hagiography|hagiographic]] biography in 1809 to honor Washington.{{sfn|Weems|1918|p=22}} Historian Ron Chernow maintains that Weems attempted to humanize Washington, making him look less stern, and to inspire "patriotism and morality" and to foster "enduring myths", such as Washington's refusal to lie about damaging his father's cherry tree.{{sfnm|Chernow|2010|1pp=813–814|Levy|2013|2pp=6, 217|Weems|1918|3p=22|Delbanco|1999}} Weems' accounts have never been proven or disproven.{{sfnm|Levy|2013|1pp=6}} Historian John Ferling, however, maintains that Washington remains the only founder and president ever<!-- ahem --> to be referred to as "godlike", and points out that his character has been the most scrutinized by historians, past and present.{{sfn|Ferling|2009|pp=xviii–xix}} Historian [[Gordon S. Wood]] concludes that "the greatest act of his life, the one that gave him his greatest fame, was his resignation as commander-in-chief of the American forces."{{sfn|Wood|1992|p=205}} Chernow suggests that Washington was "burdened by public life" and divided by "unacknowledged ambition mingled with self-doubt".{{sfn|Chernow|2010|p=547}} A 1993 review of presidential polls and surveys consistently ranked Washington number 4, 3, or{{nbsp}}2 among presidents.{{sfn|Murray|Blessing|1993|pp=7–9, 15}} A 2018 [[Siena College Research Institute]] survey ranked him number{{nbsp}}1 among presidents.{{sfn|Siena Expert Poll 1982–2018}}

=== Memorials ===

[[File:Washington Monument Dusk Jan 2006.jpg|thumb|upright=0.6|alt=A dusk picture of the Washington Monument obelisk with flags around the base, in Washington, D.C.|[[Washington Monument]], Washington, D.C.]]
{{further|The Washington Papers|List of memorials to George Washington|Presidents of the United States on U.S. postage stamps}}

[[Jared Sparks]] began collecting and publishing Washington's documentary record in the 1830s in ''Life and Writings of George Washington'' (12 vols., 1834–1837).{{sfn|Sparks|1839|p=Title page}} ''The Writings of George Washington from the Original Manuscript Sources, 1745–1799'' (1931–1944) is a 39-volume set edited by [[John Clement Fitzpatrick]], whom the George Washington Bicentennial Commission commissioned. It contains more than 17,000 letters and documents and is available online from the [[University of Virginia]].{{sfnm|Fitzpatrick|1931–1944|Lengel|2011}}

==== Universities ====
{{further|Washington (disambiguation)#Higher education}}
[[File:George Washington statue at Wash U.jpg|thumb|Statue of Washington at [[Washington University in St. Louis]]]]

Numerous universities, including [[George Washington University]] and [[Washington University in St. Louis]], were named in honor of Washington.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://library.gwu.edu/scrc/university-archives/gw-history/a-brief-history-of-gw |title=A Brief History of GW |website=GW Libraries |access-date=August 19, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://wustl.edu/about/history-traditions/|title=History and Traditions|website=[[Washington University in St. Louis]]|language=en-US|access-date=August 19, 2019}}</ref>

==== Places and monuments ====
{{further|Washington (disambiguation)#Places}}
Many places and monuments have been named in honor of Washington, most notably the capital of the United States, [[Washington, D.C.]] The state of [[Washington (state)|Washington]] is the only US state to be named after a president.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldatlas.com/webimage/countrys/namerica/usstates/wa.htm|title=Washington|publisher=Worldatlas|access-date=January 3, 2011}}</ref>

==== Currency and postage ====

{{further|Presidents of the United States on U.S. postage stamps}}

George Washington appears on contemporary U.S. currency, including the [[United States one-dollar bill|one-dollar bill]], the [[Presidential dollar coins|Presidential one-dollar coin]] and the [[Quarter (United States coin)|quarter-dollar coin]] (the [[Washington quarter]]). Washington and [[Benjamin Franklin]] appeared on the [[:File:First US Postage stamps of 1847.tiff|nation's first postage stamps]] in 1847. Washington has since appeared on many postage issues, more than any other person.{{sfn|Shapiro|2006}}

<gallery mode="packed" heights="165px">
Washington 1862 Issue-24c.jpg|Washington issue of 1862
Washington WF 1917 Issue-5c (cropped).jpg|[[Washington–Franklin Issues|Washington–Franklin]] issue of 1917
2006 Quarter Proof.png|Washington [[Quarter (United States coin)|quarter dollar]]
George Washington Presidential $1 Coin obverse.png|George Washington [[Presidential dollar coins|Presidential one-dollar coin]]
One dollar 1928.jpg|Washington on the 1928 [[United States one-dollar bill|dollar bill]]
</gallery>

== See also ==
{{Further|List of George Washington articles}}
* [[British Army during the American War of Independence|British Army during the American Revolutionary War]]
* [[List of American Revolutionary War battles]]
* [[List of Continental Forces in the American Revolutionary War]]
* [[Timeline of the American Revolution]]

== References ==
=== Notes ===
{{Notelist}}

=== Citations ===
{{reflist}}

=== Bibliography ===
{{For|a selected list of published works treating Washington|Bibliography of George Washington}}
{{Refbegin|30em}}

==== Print sources ====
* {{cite dictionary|last=Adams|first=Randolph Greenfield|title=Arnold, Benedict|publisher=Scribner|dictionary=[[Dictionary of American Biography]]|date=1928|editor=Allen Johnson|url=https://archive.org/stream/dictionaryofamer01ilamer#page/362/mode/1up}}
* {{cite book|last=Akers|first=Charles W.|chapter=John Adams|editor-last=Graff|editor-first=Henry|title=The Presidents: A Reference History|edition=3rd|year=2002|pages=23–38|isbn=978-0-684-31226-2|publisher=Scribner}}
* {{cite book|last=Alden|first=John R.|title=George Washington, a Biography|year=1996|publisher=Louisiana State University Press|isbn=978-0-8071-2126-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=js1_ngEACAAJ}}
* {{cite book|last=Anderson|first=Fred|author-link=Fred Anderson (historian)|title=Crucible of War: The Seven Years' War and the Fate of Empire in British North America, 1754–1766|publisher=Alfred A. Knopf|year=2007|isbn=978-0-307-42539-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FFO2clqJCqMC}}
* {{cite book|last=Avlon|first=John|title=Washington's Farewell: The Founding Father's Warning to Future Generations|author-link=John Avlon|publisher=Simon and Schuster|year=2017|isbn=978-1-4767-4646-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UGXUDQAAQBAJ&q=Though+in+reviewing+the+incidents}}

<!-- B -->
* {{cite book|last=Banning|first=Lance|editor-last=Woodward|editor-first=C. Vann|editor-link=C. Vann Woodward|title=Responses of the Presidents to Charges of Misconduct|author-link=Lance Banning|publisher=Delacorte Press|year=1974|isbn=978-0-440-05923-3|url=https://archive.org/details/responsesofpresi00wood}}
* {{cite book|last=Bassett|first=John Spencer|title=The Federalist System, 1789–1801|author-link=John Spencer Bassett|year=1906|publisher=Harper & Brothers|oclc=586531|url=https://archive.org/details/federalistsyste00bassgoog}}
* {{cite magazine|date=1976|title=The Battle of Trenton|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xm_fAAAAMAAJ|magazine=The National Guardsman|volume=31|publisher=National Guard Association of the United States|ref={{sfnRef|"Battle of Trenton"|1976}}}}
* {{cite book|last=Bell|first=William Gardner|title=Commanding Generals and Chiefs of Staff, 1775–2005: Portraits & Biographical Sketches of the United States Army's Senior Officer|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1cDYW2YxLfkC|year=1992|orig-year=1983|publisher=Center of Military History, United States Army|id=CMH Pub 70–14|isbn=978-0-16-035912-5}}
* {{cite book|last=Boller|first=Paul F.|title=George Washington & Religion|year=1963|publisher=Southern Methodist University Press|oclc=563800860|url=https://archive.org/details/georgewashington00boll|url-access=registration}}
* {{cite book|last=Boorstin|first=Daniel J.|author-link=Daniel J. Boorstin|title=The Americans: The National Experience|year=2010|publisher=Vintage Books|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YXVMTJMf9ZAC|isbn=978-0-307-75647-3}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Breen|first1=Eleanor E.|last2=White|first2=Esther C.|title=A Pretty Considerable Distillery: Excavating George Washington's Whiskey Distillery|journal=Quarterly Bulletin of the Archeological Society of Virginia|volume=61|issue=4|pages=209–20|year=2006|url=http://www.mountvernon.org/sites/mountvernon.org/files/Breen-White%20Distillery.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111224193148/http://www.mountvernon.org/sites/mountvernon.org/files/Breen-White%20Distillery.pdf|archive-date=December 24, 2011}}
* {{cite journal|last=Brown|first=Richard D.|title=The Founding Fathers of 1776 and 1787: A Collective View|journal=The William and Mary Quarterly|volume=33|number=3|date=1976|pages=465–480|jstor=1921543|doi=10.2307/1921543}}
* {{cite book|last=Brumwell|first=Stephen|title=George Washington, Gentleman Warrior|publisher=Quercus Publishers|year=2012|isbn=978-1-84916-546-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qhk64CAWcJgC}}

<!-- C -->
* {{cite book|last=Calloway|first=Colin G.|title=The Indian World of George Washington. The First President, the First Americans, and the Birth of the Nation|publisher=Oxford University Press|date=2018|isbn=978-0-19-065216-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YyJLDwAAQBAJ&q=9780190652166}}
* {{cite book|last=Carlson|first=Brady|title=Dead Presidents: An American Adventure into the Strange Deaths and Surprising Afterlives of Our Nations Leaders|year=2016|publisher=W.W. Norton & Company|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2_R1CQAAQBAJ&pg=PT13|isbn=978-0-393-24394-9}}
* {{cite journal|last=Cheatham|first=ML|title=The death of George Washington: an end to the controversy?|journal=American Surgery|date=August 2008|volume=74|issue=8|pages=770–4|doi=10.1177/000313480807400821|pmid=18705585|s2cid=31457820}}
* {{cite book|last=Chernow|first=Ron|title=Alexander Hamilton|year=2005|publisher=Penguin Press|isbn=978-1-101-20085-8|author-link=Ron Chernow|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4z5eL5SGjEoC&q=Washington}}
* {{cite book|last=Chernow|first=Ron|author-mask=2|title=Washington: A Life|publisher=Penguin Press|year=2010|isbn=978-1-59420-266-7|url=https://archive.org/details/washingtonlife00cher_0|url-access=registration}}
* {{cite book|last=Coakley|first=Robert W.|title=The Role of Federal Military Forces in Domestic Disorders, 1789–1878|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SMmJsJLKmvoC&pg=PA43|year=1996|orig-year=1989|publisher=DIANE Publishing|pages=43–49|isbn=978-0-7881-2818-9}}
* {{cite book |last=Cooke|first=Jacob E.|chapter=George Washington|editor-last=Graff|editor-first=Henry|title=The Presidents: A Reference History |edition=3rd |year=2002|pages=1–21|isbn=978-0-684-31226-2 |publisher=Scribner}}
* {{cite book|last=Craughwell|first=Thomas J.|title=Stealing Lincoln's Body|date=2009|publisher=Harvard University Press|pages=77–79|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bmDtSJg3a_QC&pg=PA78|isbn=978-0-674-02458-8}}
* {{cite book |editor-last=Cresswell|editor-first=Julia|title=Oxford Dictionary of Word Origins|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|date=2010|isbn=978-0-19-954793-7}}
* {{cite book|last=Cunliffe|first=Marcus|title=George Washington, Man and Monument|year=1958|publisher=Little, Brown|isbn=978-0-316-16434-4|oclc=564093853|author-link=Marcus Cunliffe|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780316164344|url-access=registration}}

<!-- D -->
* {{cite book |last1=Dalzell |first1=Robert F., Jr. |last2=Dalzell |first2=Lee Baldwin |title=George Washington's Mount Vernon: At Home in Revolutionary America |year=1998 |url=https://archive.org/details/georgewashington00dalz |url-access=registration |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-512114-8 }}
* {{cite book|last=Davis|first=Burke|title=George Washington and the American Revolution|publisher=Random House|year=1975|isbn=978-0-394-46388-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pT92AAAAMAAJ}}
* {{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1999/07/04/books/bookend-life-literature-and-the-pursuit-of-happiness.html|work=The New York Times|title=Bookend; Life, Literature and the Pursuit of Happiness|first=Andrew|last=Delbanco|date=1999}}

<!-- E -->
* {{cite book|last1=Elkins|first1=Stanley M.|author-link1=Stanley Elkins|first2=Eric|last2=McKitrick|title=The Age of Federalism|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1995|orig-year=1993|isbn=978-0-19-509381-0}}
* {{cite book|last=Ellis|first=Joseph J.|author-link=Joseph Ellis|title=His Excellency: George Washington|publisher=Alfred A. Knopf|year=2004|isbn=978-1-4000-4031-5|url=https://archive.org/details/hisexcellencygeo0000elli|url-access=registration}}
* {{cite journal|last=Estes|first=Todd|title=Shaping the Politics of Public Opinion: Federalists and the Jay Treaty Debate|journal=[[Journal of the Early Republic]]|year=2000|volume=20|issue=3|pages=393–422|jstor=3125063|doi=10.2307/3125063}}
* {{cite journal|last=Estes|first=Todd|author-mask=2|title=The Art of Presidential Leadership: George Washington and the Jay Treaty|journal=The Virginia Magazine of History and Biography|year=2001|volume=109|issue=2|pages=127–158|jstor=4249911}}

<!-- F -->
* {{cite book|last=Farner|first=Thomas P.|date=1996|title=New Jersey in History: Fighting to Be Heard|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oJtomLKALYUC|publisher=Down the Shore Publishing|isbn=978-0-945582-38-0}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Felisati|first1=D|last2=Sperati|first2=G|title=George Washington (1732–1799)|journal=Acta Otorhinolaryngologica Italica|date=February 2005|volume=25|issue=1|pmc=2639854|pages=55–58|pmid=16080317}}
* {{cite book|last=Ferling|first=John E.|title=The First of Men|author-link=John E. Ferling|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1988|isbn=978-0-19-975275-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yHRbR8snrfoC}}
* {{cite book|last=Ferling|first=John E.|author-link=John E. Ferling|author-mask=2|title=Setting the World Ablaze: Washington, Adams, Jefferson, and the American Revolution|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2002|isbn=978-0-19-513409-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lifQ0G0m9WwC&q=lafayette}}
* {{cite book|last=Ferling|first=John E.|author-mask=2|title=Almost a Miracle|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2007|isbn=978-0-19-975847-0|url=https://archive.org/details/almostmiracleam00ferl|url-access=registration}}
* {{cite book|last=Ferling|first=John E.|author-mask=2|title=The Ascent of George Washington: The Hidden Political Genius of an American Icon|publisher=Bloomsbury Press|year=2009|isbn=978-1-60819-182-6|url=https://archive.org/details/ascentofgeorgewa0000ferl|url-access=registration}}
* {{cite book|last=Ferling|first=John E.|author-mask=2|title=First of Men: A Life of George Washington|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2010|orig-year=1988|isbn=978-0-19-539867-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yHRbR8snrfoC&q=curtis}}
* {{cite book|last=Ferling|first=John|author-mask=2|title=Jefferson and Hamilton: the rivalry that forged a nation|publisher=Bloomsbury Press|year=2013|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MlecIL4lY_UC|isbn=978-1-60819-542-8}}
* {{cite book|last=Fischer|first=David Hackett|title=Washington's Crossing|year=2004|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-517034-4|author-link=David Hackett Fischer|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Oreq1YztDcQC}}
* {{cite book|last1=Fishman|first1=Ethan M.|last2=Pederson|first2=William D.|last3=Rozell|first3=Mark J.|title=George Washington: Foundation of Presidential Leadership and Character|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|year=2001|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HFkZ5RBeuKoC|isbn=978-0-275-96868-7}}
* {{cite encyclopedia|year=1936|title=Washington, George|encyclopedia=[[Dictionary of American Biography]]|last1=Fitzpatrick|first1=John C.|author-link=John C. Fitzpatrick|editor=Dumas Malone|volume=19|pages=509–527|publisher=Scribner|url=https://archive.org/stream/dictionaryofamer19amer#page/509/mode/1up}}
* {{cite book|last=Flexner|first=James Thomas|title=George Washington: the Forge of Experience, (1732–1775)|year=1965|publisher=Little, Brown|isbn=978-0-316-28597-1|oclc=426484|author-link=James Thomas Flexner|url=https://archive.org/details/georgewashington0000flex_u0e8|url-access=registration}}
* {{cite book|last=Flexner|first=James Thomas|title=George Washington in the American Revolution, 1775–1783|year=1967|publisher=Little, Brown|author-mask=2|author-link=James Thomas Flexner|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yEF2AAAAMAAJ}}
* {{cite book|last=Flexner|first=James Thomas|author-mask=2|title=George Washington and the New Nation (1783–1793)|publisher=Little, Brown|year=1969|isbn=978-0-316-28600-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r3UcMQAACAAJ}}
* {{cite book|last=Flexner|first=James Thomas|author-mask=2|title=George Washington: Anguish and Farewell (1793–1799)|publisher=Little, Brown|year=1972|isbn=978-0-316-28602-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bToqSwAACAAJ}}
* {{cite book|last=Flexner|first=James Thomas|author-mask=2|title=Washington: The Indispensable Man|year=1974|publisher=Little, Brown|isbn=978-0-316-28605-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kTfWDQAAQBAJ}}
* {{cite book|last=Flexner|first=James Thomas|author-mask=2|title=The Traitor and the Spy: Benedict Arnold and John André|publisher=Syracuse University Press|year=1991|isbn=978-0-8156-0263-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mpEuaCdDvkEC}}
* {{cite book|last=Frazer|first=Gregg L.|title=The Religious Beliefs of America's Founders Reason, Revelation, and Revolution|publisher=University Press of Kansas|date=2012|isbn=978-0-7006-1845-3}}
* {{cite book|title=Journals of the Continental Congress, 1774–1789: 1774|publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office|year=1904|last1=Ford|first1=Worthington Chauncey|first2=Gaillard|last2=Hunt|first3=John Clement|last3=Fitzpatrick|volume=1|author-link=Worthington C. Ford|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-zMSAAAAYAAJ}}
* {{cite book|last=Freedman|first=Russell|title=Washington at Valley Forge|year=2008|publisher=Holiday House|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ia5ivgAACAAJ|isbn=978-0-8234-2069-8}}
* {{cite book|last=Freeman|first=Douglas Southall|title=Washington|year=1968|publisher=Scribner|oclc=426557|editor1-first=Richard Barksdale|editor1-last=Harwell|url=https://archive.org/details/washington00free|url-access=registration}}
* {{cite book |last=Freeman |first=Douglas Southall |title=George Washington: Victory with the help of France, Volume 5 |author-link=Douglas Southall Freeman |author-mask=2 |publisher=Eyre and Spottiswoode |year=1952 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=42zjQgAACAAJ }}
* {{cite journal|last=Furstenberg|first=François|title=Atlantic Slavery, Atlantic Freedom: George Washington, Slavery, and Transatlantic Abolitionist Networks|journal=The William and Mary Quarterly|volume=68|number=2|publisher=Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture|year=2011|pages=247–286|jstor=10.5309/willmaryquar.68.2.0247|doi=10.5309/willmaryquar.68.2.0247}}

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* {{cite book|last=Gaff|first=Alan D.|title=Bayonets in the Wilderness: Anthony Wayne's Legion in the Old Northwest|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press|year=2004|isbn=978-0-8061-3585-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QEI11WSV3WcC}}
* {{cite book|last1=Genovese|first1=Michael A.|editor=Michael Kazin|title=The Princeton Encyclopedia of American Political History. (Two volume set)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4hqpJEJp7cUC&pg=PA589|year=2009|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-4008-3356-6}}
* {{cite book|editor-last=Gregg|editor-first=Gary L., II|editor-last2=Spalding|editor-first2=Matthew|editor-link=Gary L. Gregg|title=Patriot Sage: George Washington and the American Political Tradition|year=1999|publisher=ISI Books|isbn=978-1-882926-38-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q4axDZ5OMdcC}}
* {{cite book|last=Grizzard|first=Frank E., Jr.|title=George Washington: A Biographical Companion|year=2002|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-57607-082-6|author-link=Frank E. Grizzard, Jr.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RioTGCygpT8C&q=curtis}}
* {{cite book|last=Grizzard|first=Frank E., Jr.|title=George!: A Guide to All Things Washington|year=2005|publisher=Mariner Pub|isbn=978-0-9768238-8-9}}

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* {{cite book|last=Hayes|first=Kevin J. |title=George Washington, A Life in Books|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2017|isbn=978-0-19-045667-2}}
* {{cite book|last=Henderson|first=Donald|title=Smallpox: The Death of a Disease|year=2009|publisher=Prometheus Books|isbn=978-1-59102-722-5}}
* {{cite book|last=Henriques|first=Peter R.|date=2006|title=Realistic Visionary: A Portrait of George Washington|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IuQHciwgYzUC&pg=PA65|publisher=University Press of Virginia|isbn=978-0-8139-2741-1}}
* {{cite book|last=Henriques|first=Peter R.|year=2020|title=First and Always: A New Portrait of George Washington|location=Charlottesville, VA|publisher=University of Virginia Press|isbn=978-0-8139-4480-7}}
* {{cite journal|last=Heydt|first=Bruce|title='Vexatious Evils': George Washington and the Conway Cabal|journal=American History|year=2005|volume=40|issue=5}}
* {{cite book|last=Higginbotham|first=Don|title=George Washington Reconsidered|year=2001|publisher=University Press of Virginia|isbn=978-0-8139-2005-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L0qGWo_NGlAC}}
* {{cite book|last=Hindle|first=Brooke|title=David Rittenhouse|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hgyOJO93UtAC&pg=PA92|orig-year=1964|year=2017|page=92|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-4008-8678-4}}
* {{cite book|last=Hirschfeld|first=Fritz|title=George Washington and Slavery: A Documentary Portrayal|year=1997|publisher=University of Missouri Press|isbn=978-0-8262-1135-4|url=https://archive.org/details/georgewashington00hirs|url-access=registration}}

<!-- I -->
* {{cite book|last=Isaacson|first=Walter|title=Benjamin Franklin, an American Life|author-link=Walter Isaacson|publisher=Simon and Schuster|year=2003|isbn=978-0-7432-6084-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oIW915dDMBwC}}
* {{cite book|last=Irving|first=Washington|title=Life of George Washington, Vol. 5|publisher=G. P. Putnam and Son|year=1857|url=https://archive.org/details/lifegeorgewashington05irvirich}}

<!-- J -->
* {{cite book|last=Jensen|first=Merrill|title=The Articles of Confederation: An Interpretation of the Social-Constitutional History of the American Revolution, 1774–1781|year=1948|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|oclc=498124|author-link=Merrill Jensen|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uEMLAQAAIAAJ}}
* {{cite book|last1=Jillson|first1=Calvin C.|last2=Wilson|first2=Rick K.|title=Congressional Dynamics: Structure, Coordination, and Choice in the First American Congress, 1774–1789|publisher=Stanford University Press|date=1994|isbn=978-0-8047-2293-3}}
* {{cite book|last=Johnstone|first=William|title=George Washington, the Christian|url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_MzWruWAnHM0C|publisher=The Abingdon Press|year=1919|oclc=19524242}}<!--Though on this edition, the author's name is rendered both in print and in his signed author's statement as "JohnSON", in later editions and in later books the man's name is rendered and signed as "JohnSTONE". See [
Wikipedia:Featured article candidates/George Washington/archive4#Google links issue] -->

<!-- K -->
* {{cite book|last=Ketchum|first=Richard M.|title=The Winter Soldiers: The Battles for Trenton and Princeton|year=1999|publisher=Henry Holt|isbn=978-0-8050-6098-0|orig-year=1973|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZWf2AwAAQBAJ}}
* {{cite journal|last=Kohn|first=Richard H.|title=The Inside History of the Newburgh Conspiracy: America and the Coup d'Etat|journal=The William and Mary Quarterly|date=April 1970|volume=27|issue=2|pages=187–220|jstor=1918650|doi=10.2307/1918650}}
* {{cite book|last=Kohn|first=Richard H.|author-mask=2|title=Eagle and Sword: The Federalists and the Creation of the Military Establishment in America, 1783–1802|year=1975|pages=[https://archive.org/details/eagleswordfed00kohn/page/n264 225]–42|publisher=Free Press|isbn=978-0-02-917551-4|url=https://archive.org/details/eagleswordfed00kohn|url-access=registration}}
* {{cite journal|last=Kohn|first=Richard H.|author-mask=2|title=The Washington Administration's Decision to Crush the Whiskey Rebellion|url=http://vi.uh.edu/pages/buzzmat/Radhistory/radical%20history%20articles/Washington's%20Decision%20to%20Crush%20Whiskey%20Rebellion.pdf|archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20150924183930/http://vi.uh.edu/pages/buzzmat/Radhistory/radical%20history%20articles/Washington's%20Decision%20to%20Crush%20Whiskey%20Rebellion.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=September 24, 2015|journal=[[The Journal of American History]]|year=1972|volume=59|issue=3|pages=567–84|jstor=1900658|doi=10.2307/1900658}}
* {{cite book|last=Korzi|first=Michael J.|title=Presidential Term Limits in American History: Power, Principles, and Politics|publisher=Texas A&M University Press|year=2011|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_nYZHG2P-9QC&q=editions:eZH5b7sFYLQC|isbn=978-1-60344-231-2}}

<!-- L -->
* {{cite book|last1=Lancaster|first1=Bruce|title=The American Revolution|year=1985|publisher=American Heritage Press|isbn=978-0-8281-0281-0|first2=John H.|last2=Plumb|author-link2=John H. Plumb|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qSe4n1h-I0UC}}
* {{cite book|last=Lear|first=Tobias|author-link=Tobias Lear|chapter=Tobias Lear to William Augustine Washington|date=December 15, 1799|editor-last=Ford|editor-first=Worthington Chauncey|title=The Writings of George Washington|volume=14|pages=257–258|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XqE3y9LZmfgC&pg=PA257|publisher=G. Putnam & Sons|publication-date=1893}}<!-- "cite book" is almost idetical. -->
* {{cite book|last=Lengel|first=Edward G.|title=General George Washington: A Military Life|year=2005|publisher=Random House|isbn=978-1-4000-6081-8|author-link=Edward G. Lengel|url=https://archive.org/details/generalgeorgewas00leng|url-access=registration}}
* {{cite book|last=Levy|first=Philip|title=Where the Cherry Tree Grew, The Story of Ferry Farm, George Washington's Boyhood Home|publisher=Macmillan|year=2013|isbn=978-1-250-02314-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Dbh0XeajrOMC&q=%22tell+a+lie%22}}
* {{cite book|editor1-last=Lightner|editor1-first=Otto C.|editor2-last=Reeder|editor2-first=Pearl Ann|title=Hobbies, Volume 58|year=1953|publisher=Lightner Publishing Company|page=133|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8CbnAAAAMAAJ&q=rittenhouse}}

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* {{cite book|title=George Washington's War on Native America|first=Barbara Alice|last=Mann|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MWqW4be2kw8C|year=2008|publisher=University of Nevada Press|page=106|isbn=978-0-8032-1635-8}}
* {{cite book|last=McCullough|first=David|title=1776|year=2005|publisher=Simon & Schuster|isbn=978-0-7432-2671-4|author-link=David McCullough|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uu1mC6zWNTwC}}
* {{cite book|last=Middlekauff|first=Robert|title=Washington's Revolution: The Making of America's First Leader, The revolution from General Washington's perspective|author-link=Robert Middlekauff|publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group|year=2015|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F01ABAAAQBAJ|isbn=978-1-101-87424-0}}
* {{cite journal|last=Morens|first=David M.|title=Death of a President|journal=New England Journal of Medicine|date=December 1999|volume=341|issue=24|pages=1845–1849|doi=10.1056/NEJM199912093412413|pmid=10588974}}
* {{cite journal|last=Morgan|first=Kenneth|title=George Washington and the Problem of Slavery|journal=Journal of American Studies|volume=34|number=2|year=2000|pages=279–301|jstor=27556810|doi=10.1017/S0021875899006398|s2cid=145717616}}
* {{cite journal|last=Morgan|first=Philip D.|title="To Get Quit of Negroes": George Washington and Slavery|journal=Journal of American Studies|publisher=Cambridge University Press|volume=39|number=3|year=2005|pages=403–429|jstor=27557691|doi=10.1017/S0021875805000599|s2cid=145143979}}
* {{cite book|last=Morrison|first=Jeffery H.|title=The Political Philosophy of George Washington|publisher=JHU Press|year=2009|isbn=978-0-8018-9109-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f3vfS_uxvrQC&q=anglican}}
* {{cite book|last1=Murray|first1=Robert K.|last2=Blessing|first2=Tim H.|title=Greatness in the White House: Rating the Presidents, from Washington Through Ronald Reagan|publisher=Penn State Press|year=1993|isbn=978-0-271-01090-8}}

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* {{cite book|last=Nagy|first=John A.|title=George Washington's Secret Spy War: The Making of America's First Spymaster|publisher=St. Martin's Press|year=2016|isbn=978-1-250-09682-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uDinCwAAQBAJ}}
* {{cite journal|editor1-last=Newton|editor1-first=R.S.|editor2-last=Freeman|editor2-first=Z.|editor3-last=Bickley|editor3-first=G.|title=Heroic Treatment—Illness and Death of George Washington|journal=The Eclectic Medical Journal|volume=1717|date=1858|page=273|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CnkBAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA273}}
* {{cite book|last1=Novak|first1=Michael & Jana|title=Washington's God: Religion, Liberty, and the Father of Our Country|author-link=Michael Novak|publisher=Basic Books|year=2007|isbn=978-0-7867-2216-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9v9dW1e2344C}}
* {{cite book|last=Nowlan|first=Robert A.|title=The American Presidents, Washington to Tyler What They Did, What They Said, What Was Said About Them, with Full Source Notes|date=2014|isbn=978-1-4766-0118-2|publisher=McFarland|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MlNWU1e9ppUC&q=third+term}}

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* {{cite book|last=Palmer|first=Dave Richard|title=George Washington and Benedict Arnold: A Tale of Two Patriots|publisher=Simon and Schuster|year=2010|isbn=978-1-59698-164-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zANrP6rOOJkC&q=promotion}}
* {{cite book|last1=Parry|first1=Jay A.|last2=Allison|first2=Andrew M.|title=The Real George Washington: The True Story of America's Most Indispensable Man|year=1991|publisher=National Center for Constitutional Studies|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CSETAQAAMAAJ|isbn=978-0-88080-013-6|author-link=Jay A. Parry}}
* {{cite book|last=Parsons|first=Eugene|title=George Washington: A Character Sketch|publisher=H. G. Campbell publishing Company|year=1898|url=https://archive.org/details/georgewashington01pars}}
* {{cite journal|last=Peabody|first=Bruce G.|date=September 1, 2001|title=George Washington, Presidential Term Limits, and the Problem of Reluctant Political Leadership|journal=Presidential Studies Quarterly|volume=31|issue=3|pages=439–453|doi=10.1111/j.0360-4918.2001.00180.x|jstor=27552322}}
* {{cite book|last=Philbrick|first=Nathaniel|title=Valiant Ambition: George Washington, Benedict Arnold, and the Fate of the American Revolution|date=2016|publisher=Penguin Books|isbn=978-0-14-311019-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wZ1iCgAAQBAJ}}
* {{cite book|last=Puls|first=Mark|title=Henry Knox: Visionary General of the American Revolution|publisher=St. Martin's Press|year=2008|isbn=978-0-230-61142-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xf5Kmmp-yycC&q=cincinnatus}}

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* {{cite book|last=Randall|first=Willard Sterne|title=George Washington: A Life|year=1997|publisher=Henry Holt & Co|isbn=978-0-8050-2779-2|author-link=Willard Sterne Randall|url=https://archive.org/details/georgewashington00rand|url-access=registration}}
* {{cite book|last1=Rasmussen|first1=William M. S.|title=George Washington-the Man Behind the Myths|year=1999|publisher=University Press of Virginia|isbn=978-0-8139-1900-3|first2=Robert S.|last2=Tilton|url=https://archive.org/details/georgewashington00rasm|url-access=registration}}
* {{cite book|last=Rose|first=Alexander|title=Washington's Spies: The Story of America's First Spy Ring|publisher=Random House Publishing Group|year=2006|isbn=978-0-553-80421-8}}

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* {{cite book|editor-last=Schwarz|editor-first=Philip J.|title=Slavery at the home of George Washington|publisher=Mount Vernon Ladies' Association|year=2001|isbn=978-0-931917-38-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uA0aAQAAIAAJ&q=sunday}}
* {{cite book|last1=Spalding|first1=Matthew|last2=Garrity|first2=Patrick J.|title=A Sacred Union of Citizens: George Washington's Farewell Address and the American Character|url=https://archive.org/details/sacredunionofcit00spal|url-access=registration|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc.|location=Lanham, Boulder, New York, London|date=1996|isbn=978-0-8476-8262-1}}
* {{cite book|last=Sparks|first=Jared|title=The Life of George Washington|author-link=Jared Sparks|publisher=F. Andrews|year=1839|url=https://archive.org/details/lifeofgeorgewash01spar}}
* {{cite book|last=Sobel|first=Robert|title=Panic on Wall Street: A History of America's Financial Disasters|publisher=Beard Books|date=1968|isbn=978-1-893122-46-8}}
* {{cite book|last=Stavish|first=Mark|title=Freemasonry: Rituals, Symbols & History of the Secret Society|publisher=Llewellyn Publications|date=2007|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QZQK6as71lsC|isbn=978-0-7387-1148-5}}
* {{cite book|last1=Strickland|first1=William|title=The Tomb of Washington at Mount Vernon|year=1840|publisher=Carey & Hart|url=https://archive.org/stream/tombofwashington00stri#page/n9/mode/2up}}
* {{cite book|title=The Five-Ton Life|last=Subak|first=Susan|year=2018|publisher=University of Nebraska Press|isbn=978-0-8032-9688-6|series=Our Sustainable Future}}

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* {{cite book|last=Taylor|first=Alan|title=American Revolutions A Continental History, 1750–1804|publisher=W.W. Norton & Company|year=2016|isbn=978-0-393-35476-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E92aCwAAQBAJ}}
* {{cite book|last=Thompson|first=Mary|title=In The Hands of a Good Providence|year=2008|publisher=University Press of Virginia|isbn=978-0-8139-2763-3|page=40|url=https://muse.jhu.edu/book/22742}}
* {{cite book|last=Twohig|first=Dorothy|editor-last=Higginbotham|editor-first=Don|title=George Washington Reconsidered|chapter="That Species of Property": Washington's Role in the Controversy over Slavery|chapter-url=http://gwpapers.virginia.edu/resources/articles/species/|publisher=University Press of Virginia|pages=114–138|year=2001|isbn=978-0-8139-2005-4}}

<!-- U -->
* {{cite book|last=Unger|first=Harlow Giles|title="Mr. President" George Washington and the Making of the Nation's Highest Office|year=2013|publisher=Da Capo Press, A Member of the Perseus Book Group|isbn=978-0-306-82241-4|author-link=Harlow Unger|url=https://archive.org/details/mrpresidentgeorg0000unge|url-access=registration}}
* {{cite book|last=Unger|first=Harlow Giles|title=Thomas Paine and the Clarion Call for American Independence|year=2019|publisher=Da Capo Press, A Member of the Perseus Book Group}}

<!-- V -->
* {{cite journal|last=Vadakan|first=Vibul V.|title=A Physician Looks At The Death of Washington|journal=The Early America Review|date=Winter–Spring 2005|volume=6|issue=1|issn=1090-4247|url=http://www.earlyamerica.com/review/2005_winter_spring/washingtons_death.htm|url-status=usurped|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051216141728/http://www.earlyamerica.com/review/2005_winter_spring/washingtons_death.htm|archive-date=December 16, 2005}}
* {{cite book|last=Van Doren|first=Carl|author-link=Carl Clinton Van Doren|title=Secret history of the American Revolution : an account of the conspiracies of Benedict Arnold and numerous others|publisher=Garden City Pub. Co.|year=1941|url=https://archive.org/details/secrethistoryofa00vand}}

<!-- W, X, Y, Z -->
* {{cite book|last1=Waldman|first1=Carl|last2=Braun|first2=Molly|title=Atlas of the North American Indian|url=https://archive.org/details/atlasofnorthamer00wald|url-access=registration|publisher=Facts On File, Inc.|date=2009|edition=3rd|isbn=978-0-8160-6859-3}}
* {{cite book|last=Wiencek|first=Henry|title=An Imperfect God: George Washington, His Slaves, and the Creation of America|year=2003|publisher=Farrar, Straus and Giroux|isbn=978-0-374-17526-9|author-link=Henry Wiencek|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9Wr1AAAAQBAJ}}
* {{cite book|last1=Willcox|first1=William B.|last2=Arnstein|first2=Walter L.|title=The Age of Aristocracy 1688 to 1830|publisher=D.C. Heath and Company|date=1988|edition=Fifth|isbn=0-669-13423-6}}
* {{cite book|last=Wood|first=Gordon S.|title=The Radicalism of the American Revolution|year=1992|publisher=Alfred A. Knopf|isbn=978-0-679-40493-4|author-link=Gordon S. Wood|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6lGinKwz7l8C&q=patriot}}
* {{cite book|last=Wood|first=Gordon S.|editor=Don Higginbotham|author-mask=2|title=George Washington Reconsidered|year=2001|publisher=University Press of Virginia|isbn=978-0-8139-2005-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L0qGWo_NGlAC}}
* {{cite book|last=Wulf|first=Andrea|title=Founding Gardeners: The Revolutionary Generation, Nature, and the Shaping of the American Nation|publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group|year=2012|isbn=978-0-307-39068-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GzEa-lL8rngC}}

==== Primary sources ====
* {{cite book|editor-last=Elliot|editor-first=Jonathan|title=The Debates, Resolutions, and Other Proceedings, in Convention, on the Adoption of the Federal Constitution, Volume 4: Supplementary to the state Conventions|publisher=Published by editor|year=1827|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-gtAAAAAYAAJ}}
* {{cite book|url=https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/000366819/Home|publisher=U.S. Govt. Print. Off.|via=Hathi Trust Digital Library|year=1931–1944|access-date=March 7, 2011|title=The Writings of George Washington from the original manuscript sources, 1745–1799|editor-last=Fitzpatrick|editor-first=John C.}}
* {{cite web|url=http://rotunda.upress.virginia.edu/founders/GEWN|publisher=University Press of Virginia|year=2011|access-date=March 7, 2011|title=The Papers of George Washington|website=The Papers of George Washington: Digital Edition|editor-last=Lengel|editor-first=Edward G.|editor-link=Edward G. Lengel|url-access=registration}}
* {{cite journal|last=Riley|first=Edward M.|title=St. George Tucker's Journal of the Siege of Yorktown, 1781 |journal=The William and Mary Quarterly |date=July 1948|jstor=1923466|publisher=Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture|volume=5|number=3|pages=375–395|doi=10.2307/1923466}}
* {{cite web|last=Washington|first=George|title=Letter to Continental Army, November 2, 1783, Farewell Orders; Letter to Henry Knox, November 2, 1783|year=1799|work=George Washington Papers, 1741–1799: Series 3b Varick Transcripts|url=http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=mgw3&fileName=mgw3b/gwpage016.db&recNum=347|publisher=Library of Congress|access-date=November 13, 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130821112926/http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=mgw3&fileName=mgw3b%2Fgwpage016.db&recNum=347|archive-date=August 21, 2013}}
* {{cite web|last=Washington|first=George|title=Sentiments on a Peace Establishment|url=https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/99-01-02-11202|publisher=National Historical Publications and Records Commission (The U.S. National Archives and Records Administration)|date=1783|access-date=July 20, 2018}}
* {{cite web |last=Washington |first=George |title=George Washington to Samuel Griffin, April 30, 1788 |url=https://www.loc.gov/resource/mgw2.015/?sp=93 |publisher=[[Library of Congress]] |access-date=April 2, 2021 |date=April 30, 1788a }}
* {{cite web|last=Washington|first=George|title=Letter to Richard Peters, September 7, 1788|url=https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/04-06-02-0447|publisher=National Historical Publications and Records Commission (The U.S. National Archives and Records Administration)|date=September 7, 1788b|access-date=February 11, 2019}}
* {{cite web|last=Washington|first=George|title=April 1789|url=https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/01-05-02-0005-0001|publisher=National Historical Publications and Records Commission (The U.S. National Archives and Records Administration)|date=1789|access-date=February 26, 2020}}
* {{cite book|last=Weems|first=Mason Locke|title=A history of the life and death, virtues and exploits of General George Washington : with curious anecdotes equally honourable to himself and exemplary to his young countrymen|author-link=Mason Locke Weems|publisher=J.B. Lippincott|year=1918|url=https://archive.org/details/historyoflifede00weem}}

==== Online sources ====
* {{cite web|title=The Death of George Washington|website=George Washington's Mount Vernon/Washington Library|access-date=March 13, 2021|url=https://www.mountvernon.org/library/digitalhistory/digital-encyclopedia/article/the-death-of-george-washington/|ref={{sfnRef|"The Death of George Washington"}}}}
* {{cite web|title=Honorary French Citizenship|website=George Washington's Mount Vernon|access-date=February 1, 2019|url=https://www.mountvernon.org/library/digitalhistory/digital-encyclopedia/article/honorary-french-citizenship/|ref={{sfnRef|George Washington's Mount Vernon, Essay, citizenship}}}}
* {{cite web|title=A Brief History|url=https://gwmemorial.org/pages/history|publisher=The George Washington Masonic National Memorial Association (GWMNMA)|ref={{sfnRef|"A Brief History" (GWMNMA)}}}}
* {{cite web|title=George Washington's Professional Surveys|website=Founders Online|publisher=U.S. National Archives|url=https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/02-01-02-0004#document_page|access-date=July 11, 2019|ref={{sfnRef|"George Washington's Professional Surveys"}}}}
* {{cite magazine|last=Engber|first=Daniel|url=http://www.slate.com/id/2134455/|title=What's Benjamin Franklin's Birthday?|magazine=[[Slate (magazine)|Slate]]|date=January 18, 2006}}
* {{cite web|last=Harless|first=Richard|title=Native American Policy|url=https://www.mountvernon.org/library/digitalhistory/digital-encyclopedia/article/native-american-policy/|publisher=Mount Vernon Ladies' Association|website=George Washington's Mount Vernon|date=2018|access-date=June 10, 2020}}
* {{cite web|url=https://history.army.mil/html/faq/5star.html|title=How Many U.S. Army Five-star Generals Have There Been and Who Were They?|date=2017|publisher=U.S. Army Center of Military History|access-date=November 1, 2018|ref={{sfnRef|"Five-star Generals"|2017}}}}
* {{cite journal|last=Howat|first=John K.|title=Washington Crossing the Delaware|journal=The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin|publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art|url=https://www.metmuseum.org/pubs/bulletins/1/pdf/3258337.pdf.bannered.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170613072040/https://www.metmuseum.org/pubs/bulletins/1/pdf/3258337.pdf.bannered.pdf|archive-date=June 13, 2017|volume=26|number=7|date=March 1968|pages=289–299|doi=10.2307/3258337|jstor=3258337}}
* {{cite web|last=Immekus|first=Alexander|title=Freemasonry|url=https://www.mountvernon.org/library/digitalhistory/digital-encyclopedia/article/freemasonry/|website=George Washington's Mount Vernon|publisher=Mount Vernon Ladies' Association|date=2018|access-date=September 7, 2018}}
* {{cite web|last=Lurie|first=Shira|title=George Washington's Farewell Address|website=George Washington's Mount Vernon|url=https://www.mountvernon.org/library/digitalhistory/digital-encyclopedia/article/george-washingtons-farewell-address/|publisher=Mount Vernon Ladies' Association|date=2018|access-date=March 20, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190320192745/https://www.mountvernon.org/library/digitalhistory/digital-encyclopedia/article/george-washingtons-farewell-address/|archive-date=March 20, 2019|url-status=dead}}
* {{cite web|url=https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/religion/rel06.html|title=Religion and the Founding of the American Republic|publisher=Library of Congress|year=2011|access-date=July 20, 2018}}
* {{cite web|title=1-cent Washington|date=May 16, 2006|url=https://arago.si.edu/category_2033234.html|website=Arago News/Online Database of the National Postal Museum|publisher=Smithsonian Institution/National Postal Museum|last=Shapiro|first=Jeff|access-date=November 29, 2018}}
* {{cite web|title=Slave Control|url=https://www.mountvernon.org/library/digitalhistory/digital-encyclopedia/article/slave-control//|publisher=Mount Vernon Ladies' Association|website=George Washington's Mount Vernon|access-date=August 10, 2018|ref={{sfnRef|Slave Control (Mount Vernon Ladies' Association Essay)}}}}
* {{cite web|title=Slave Labor|publisher=Mount Vernon Ladies' Association|access-date=July 1, 2018|url=https://www.mountvernon.org/library/digitalhistory/digital-encyclopedia/article/slave-labor/|website=George Washington's Mount Vernon|ref={{sfnRef|Slave Labor (Mount Vernon Ladies' Association Essay)}}}}
* {{cite web|title=Surveying|publisher=Mount Vernon Ladies' Association|access-date=June 13, 2016|url=http://www.mountvernon.org/digital-encyclopedia/article/surveying/|website=George Washington's Mount Vernon}}
* {{cite web|title=Ten Facts About Washington & Slavery|url=http://www.mountvernon.org/george-washington/slavery/ten-facts-about-washington-slavery/|website=George Washington's Mount Vernon|publisher=Mount Vernon Ladies' Association|access-date=July 20, 2018|ref={{sfnRef|"Ten Facts About Washington & Slavery"}}}}
* {{cite web|last=Thompson|first=Mary V.|title=Death Defied|url=https://www.mountvernon.org/george-washington/the-man-the-myth/death-defied-dr-thorntons-radical-idea-of-bringing-george-washington-back-to-life/|ref={{sfnRef|"Death Defied"}}|website=George Washington's Mount Vernon|publisher=Mount Vernon Ladies' Association, Essay 3|access-date=October 14, 2018}}
* {{cite web|title=The Tomb|url=http://www.mountvernon.org/digital-encyclopedia/article/tomb/|website=George Washington's Mount Vernon|publisher=Mount Vernon Ladies' Association|access-date=April 12, 2018|ref={{sfnRef|"Mount Vernon Ladies' Association, New Tomb"}}}}
* {{cite web|last=Tsakiridis|first=George|title=George Washington and Religion|url=https://www.mountvernon.org/library/digitalhistory/digital-encyclopedia/article/george-washington-and-religion/|website=George Washington's Mount Vernon|publisher=Mount Vernon Ladies' Association|date=2018|access-date=September 15, 2018}}
* {{cite web|last=Wallenborn|first=White McKenzie, M.D.|title=George Washington's Terminal Illness: A Modern Medical Analysis of the Last Illness and Death of George Washington|year=1999|url=https://washingtonpapers.org/resources/articles/illness/|work=[[The Papers of George Washington]]|publisher=University of Virginia|access-date=July 20, 2018}}
* {{cite web|title=Where the Cherry Tree Grew: An Interview with Phillip Levy|publisher=Mount Vernon Ladies' Association|url=https://www.mountvernon.org/george-washington/the-man-the-myth/where-the-cherry-tree-grew-an-interview-with-phillip-levy/|website=George Washington's Mount Vernon|access-date=July 20, 2018}}
* {{cite web|last1=Willard|first1=Joseph|title=To George Washington from Joseph Willard, 28 February 1781|url=https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/99-01-02-05045|publisher=[[National Archives and Records Administration]]|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170221110014/https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/99-01-02-05045|archive-date=February 21, 2017|year=2017}}
* {{cite web|title=Siena's 6th Presidential Expert Poll 1982–2018|url=https://scri.siena.edu/2019/02/13/sienas-6th-presidential-expert-poll-1982-2018/|publisher=Siena College Research Institute|date=February 13, 2019|ref={{sfnRef|Siena Expert Poll 1982–2018}}|access-date=February 26, 2019}}
* {{cite journal|last=Gardner|first=Andrew G.|title=How Did Washington Make His Millions?|url=https://www.history.org/foundation/journal/winter13/washington.cfm|publisher=The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation|journal=CW Journal|date=Winter 2013|access-date=June 11, 2019}}
{{Refend}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite book|editor-last=Elliot|editor-first=Jonathan|title=The Debates, Resolutions, and Other Proceedings, in Convention, on the Adoption of the Federal Constitution, Volumes 1–5|publisher=Published by editor|year=1827|ref=none}} ([https://books.google.com/books?id=wUWsf5O4DdwC Volume 1: Containing the debates in Massachusetts and New York])

== External links ==

<!-- Please do not add external links to subjects that are covered here or in the Bibliography of George Washington -->
{{Spoken Wikipedia|en-George Washington-article.ogg|date=March 2, 2019}}
{{Library resources box}}
* [https://www.archive.org/details/copiesofwillsofg1904wash ''Copies of the wills of General George Washington: the first president of the United States and of Martha Washington, his wife''] (1904), edited by E. R. Holbrook
* [http://www.shapell.org/Collection/Presidents/Washington-George George Washington Personal Manuscripts]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060630162324/http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/washington/ George Washington Resources] at the [[University of Virginia Library]]
* [https://www.parleybot.com/p/george-washington.html George Washington's Speeches: Quote-search-tool]
* [http://www.shapell.org/manuscript.aspx?george-washington-potomac-river Original Digitized Letters of George Washington] Shapell Manuscript Foundation
* [https://founders.archives.gov/about/Washington The Papers of George Washington], subset of [https://founders.archives.gov/ Founders Online] from the [[National Archives and Records Administration|National Archives]]
* {{Gutenberg author|id=4659}}
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p004y28v Washington & the American Revolution], BBC Radio{{nbsp}}4 discussion with Carol Berkin, Simon Middleton & Colin Bonwick (''In Our Time'', June 24, 2004)
* {{BHL author}}
* [https://www.lib.uchicago.edu/e/scrc/findingaids/view.php?eadid=ICU.SPCL.WASHINGTONG Guide to the George Washington Collection 1776–1792] at the [https://www.lib.uchicago.edu/scrc/ University of Chicago Special Collections Research Center]

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{{s-ttl|title=Commander in Chief of the [[Continental Army]]|years=1775–1783}}
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